The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fifteen Decisive Battles of THE—WORLD From MARATHON to Waterloo, 
by Edward Creasy
 Author: Edward Creasy
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 Language: English
 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES ***Produced by John Hill
 THE FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE—WORLD FROM MARATHON TO WATERLOO By Sir Edward Creasy, 
M.A.
 (Late Chief Justice of Ceylon) Author of 'The Rise and Progress of THE—ENGLISH CONSTITUTION'
 Dedicated to ROBERT GORDON LATHam 
M.D., 
F.R.S, 
Late Fellow of KING his College Cambridge; Fellow of THE—ROYAL—College of Physicians, 
LONDON.
 MEMBER—OF—the Ethnological Society, 
NEW—YORK; Late Professor of THE—ENGLISH Language and LITERATure, 
in University College, 
 By his Friend THE AUTHOR.
 Transcriber's Notes:
 Capital letters have been used to replace text in italics in the printed text, 
Accents have been omitted.
 Footnotes have been inserted into the text enclosed in square '[]'
 brackets, 
near the point where they were indicated by a suffix in the text.
 Greek words in the text have been crudely translated into Western European capital letters, 
Sincere apologies to Greek scholars!  
Longer passages in Greek have been omitted and where possible replaced with a reference to the original from which they were taken.
 PREFACE.
 It is an honourable characteristic of the Spirit of this Age, 
that 
 projects of violence and warfare are regarded among civilized states with gradually increasing aversion, 
The Universal Peace Society certainly does not, 
and, 
probably never will, 
enrol the majority of statesmen among its members, 
But even those who look upon the Appeal of Battle as occasionally unavoidable in international controversies,
 concur in thinking it a deplorable necessity, 
only to be resorted to when all peaceful modes of arrangement have been vainly tried;  
 and when THE—LAW of self-defence justifies a State, 
like an individual, 
in using force to protect itself from imminent and serious injury, 
For a writer,
 therefore, 
of the present day to choose battles for his favourite topic, 
merely because they were battles, 
merely because so many myriads of
 troops were arrayed in them, 
so many hundreds or thousands of human beings stabbed, 
hewed, 
or shot each other to death
 -DURING them, 
would argue strange weakness or depravity of mind, 
Yet it cannot be denied that a fearful and wonderful interest is attached to these scenes of carnage, 
There is undeniable greatness in the disciplined courage, 
in the love of honour, 
which make the combatants confront agony and destruction, 
And 
 the powers of the human intellect are rarely more strongly displayed than they are in THE—COMMANDER, 
who regulates, 
arrays, 
wields at his will these masses of armed disputants;  
 who, 
cool yet daring, 
in the midst of peril reflects on all, 
provides for all, 
ever ready with fresh resources and designs, 
as the vicissitudes of
 the storm of slaughter require, 
But these qualities, 
however high they may appear, 
are to be found in the basest as well as IN—THE—NOBLESt of mankind, 
Catiline was as brave a soldier as Leonidas, 
a much better officer, 
Alva surpassed THE—PRINCE—OF—Orange in the field; and 
Suwarrow was THE—MILITARY superior of Kosciusko, 
To adopt the emphatic words of Byron:--
 "'Tis the Cause makes all,
 Degrades or hallows courage in its fall."
 There are some battles, 
also, 
which claim our attention, 
independently of the moral WORTH—OF—the combatants,
 ON—ACCOUNT—OF—their enduring importance, 
 by reason of the practical influence on our own social and political condition,
 which we can trace up to the results of those engagements, 
They have for us an abiding and actual interest, 
both while we investigate the chain of causes and effects, 
by which they have helped to make us what we are;  
 and also while we speculate on what we probably should have been, 
if any one of those battles had come to a different termination, 
Hallam has admirably expressed this in his remarks on THE—VICTORY gained by CHARLES Martel, 
between TOURS and Poictiers, 
over the invading Saracens.
 Hallam says of it, 
that "it may justly be reckoned among those few battles of which a contrary event would have essentially varied the drama of the
 world in all its subsequent scenes: with MARATHON, 
Arbela, 
the Metaurus, 
CHALONS, 
Leipsic." It was the perusal of this note of Hallam's that
 1, 
led me to the consideration of my present subject, 
I certainly differ from that great historian as to the comparative importance of some of the battles which he thus enumerates, 
also of some which he omits, 
 It is probable, 
indeed, 
that no two historical inquirers would entirely agree in their lists of the Decisive Battles of THE—WORLD.
 Different minds will naturally vary in the impressions which particular events make on them;  
 and in the degree of interest with which they watch the career, 
reflect on THE—IMPORTANCE, 
of different historical personages, 
But 
 our concurrence in our catalogues is of little moment,
 provided we learn to look on these great historical events —IN—THE—spirit which Hallam's observations indicate, 
 Those remarks should teach us to watch how the interests of many states are often involved in the collisions between a few;  
 and how the effect of those collisions is not limited to a single age, 
but may give an impulse which will sway the
 fortunes of successive generations of mankind, 
Most valuable also is the mental discipline which is thus acquired, 
by which we are trained
 not only to observe what has been, 
what is, 
but also to ponder on what might have been, 
[See Bolingbroke, 
On the Study and Use of History, 
VOLUME—II—PAGE—497 of his collected works]
 We thus learn not to judge of the wisdom of measures too exclusively by the results, 
We learn to apply the juster —STANDARD of seeing what the circumstances and the probabilities were that surrounded a statesman or a general —AT—THE—TIME—WHEN he decided on his plan: we value him not by
 his fortune, 
but by his PROAIRESIZ, 
to adopt the expressive Greek word, 
for which our language gives no equivalent.
 THE—REASONs why each of the following Fifteen Battles has been selected will, 
I trust, 
appear when it is described, 
But it may be well to premise a few remarks on the negative tests which have led me to reject others, 
which 
 at 1, 
sight may appear equal in magnitude and importance to the chosen Fifteen.
 I need hardly remark that it is not the number of killed and wounded in a battle that determines its general historical importance, 
It is not because only a few hundreds fell in the battle by which JOAN—OF—ARC captured the Tourelles and raised —SIEGE—OF—Orleans, 
that the effect
 of that crisis is to be judged: nor would a full belief in the largest number which Eastern historians state to have been slaughtered in any
 of the numerous KONFLIKTs between Asiatic rulers, 
make me regard the engagement in which they fell as one of paramount importance to mankind.
 But, 
besides battles of this kind, 
there are many of great consequence,
 and attended with circumstances which powerfully excite our feelings,
 and rivet our attention, 
yet which appear to me of mere secondary rank, 
inasmuch as either their effects were limited in area, 
or they
 themselves merely confirmed some great tendency or bias which an earlier battle had originated, 
For example, 
the encounters between THE—GREEKS and PERSIAns, 
which followed MARATHON, 
seem to me not to have been phenomena of primary impulse, 
Greek superiority had been ALREADY asserted, 
Asiatic ambition had ALREADY been checked, 
before Salamis and Platea confirmed the superiority of European free states over Oriental despotism, 
So, 
AEgos-Potamos, 
which finally crushed the maritime power of Athens, 
seems to me inferior in interest to the defeat before Syracuse, 
where Athens received her 1, 
fatal check, 
after which she only struggled to retard her downfall, 
I think similarly of Zama with respect to CARTHAGE, 
as compared with the Metaurus: and,
 on the same principle, 
the subsequent great battles of THE—REVOLUTIONary war appear to me inferior in their importance to Valmy,
 which 1, 
determined THE—MILITARY character and career of THE—FRENCH—REVOLUTION.
 I am aware that a little activity of imagination, 
a slight exercise of metaphysical ingenuity, 
may amuse us, 
by showing how the chain of
 circumstances is so linked together, 
that the smallest skirmish, 
or the slightest occurrence of any kind, 
that ever occurred, 
may be said to
 have been essential, 
in its actual termination, 
to the whole order of subsequent events, 
But when I speak of Causes and Effects, 
I speak of the obvious and important agency of one fact upon another, 
not of remote and fancifully infinitesimal influences, 
I am aware that, 
on the other hand, 
the reproach of Fatalism is justly incurred by those, 
who, 
like the writers of a certain school in a neighbouring country,
 recognise —IN—HISTORY nothing more than a series of necessary phenomena,
 which follow inevitably one upon the other, 
But when, 
in this work, 
I speak of probabilities, 
I speak of human probabilities only, 
 When I speak of Cause and Effect, 
I speak of those general laws only, 
by which we perceive the sequence of human affairs to be usually regulated;  and
 in which we recognise emphatically the wisdom and power of the Supreme Lawgiver, 
the design of The Designer.
18510626             MITRE COURT CHAMBERS, 
TEMPLE, 
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER—I 
THE—BATTLE—OF—MARATHON
 Explanatory Remarks on some of the circumstances of —BATTLE—OF—MARATHON.
 Synopsis of Events between 
_04900928            —BATTLE—OF—MARATHON, 
, 
_04130000            THE—DEFEAT—OF—the Athenians at Syracuse, 
.
CHAPTER—II
_04130000   DEFEAT—OF—THE ATHENIANS AT SYRACUSE, 
 THE—DEFEAT—OF—the Athenians at Syracuse and 
_03310000            —BATTLE—OF—ARBELA.
CHAPTER—III
_03310000            —BATTLE—OF—ARBELA, 
 Synopsis of Events between —BATTLE—OF—ARBELA and —BATTLE—OF—THE—Metaurus.
CHAPTER—IV
_02070000            —BATTLE—OF—THE—METAURUS, 
Synopsis of Events between 
_02070000            —BATTLE—OF—THE—Metaurus, 
and
00090000             ARMINIUS's VICTORy over THE—ROMAN—Legions under VARUS, 
CHAPTER—V
00090000             VICTORY—OF—ARMINIUS OVER THE—ROMAN—LEGIONS UNDER VARUS, 
ARMINIUS
Synopsis of Events between ARMINIUS's VICTORy over VARUS and —BATTLE—OF—CHALONS.
CHAPTER—VI
04510000             —BATTLE—OF—CHALONS, 
04510000    Synopsis of Events between —BATTLE—OF—CHALONS, 
the
07320000             —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
CHAPTER—VII
07320000             —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
07320000     Synopsis of Events between —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
10660000             the —BATTLE—OF—Hastings, 
CHAPTER—VIII
10660000             —BATTLE—OF—HASTINGS, 
10660000             —BATTLE—OF—Hastings, 
14290000             JOAN—OF—ARC's VICTORY—AT—Orleans, 
CHAPTER—IX
14290000             JOAN—OF—ARC'S VICTORY OVER THE—ENGLISH AT ORLEANS, 
15880000             THE—DEFEAT—OF—the Spanish Armada, 
CHAPTER—X
15880000             THE—DEFEAT—OF—THE SPANISH ARMADA, 
 Synopsis of events between 
15880000             THE—DEFEAT—OF—the Spanish Armada and 
17040000             —BATTLE—OF—Blenheim, 
CHAPTER—XI
17040000             —BATTLE—OF—BLENHEIM, 
17090000             The —BATTLE—OF—Pultowa, 
CHAPTER—XII
17090000             —BATTLE—OF—PULTOWA, 
17090000             —BATTLE—OF—Pultowa, 
17770000             THE—DEFEAT—OF—Burgoyne at Saratoga, 
CHAPTER—XIII
17770000             VICTORY—OF—THE AMERICANS OVER BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA, 
17920000             —BATTLE—OF—Valmy, 
CHAPTER—XIV
17920000             —BATTLE—OF—VALMY.
18150000             The —BATTLE—OF—Waterloo, 
CHAPTER—XV
18150000             —BATTLE—OF—WATERLOO, 
 THE FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE—WORLD.
 CHAPTER—I.--
 —BATTLE—OF—MARATHON.
 "Quibus actus uterque EUROPAe atque Asiae fatis concurrerit orbis."
 Two thousand 3 hundred and forty YEARS—AGO, 
a COUNCIL—OF—Athenian officers was summoned on the slope of one of the mountains that
 look over the plain of MARATHON, 
on THE—EASTern coast of Attica, 
 The immediate SUBJECT—OF—their meeting was to consider whether they should give battle to an enemy that lay encamped on the shore beneath them;  
 but
 on the result of their deliberations depended not merely the fate of two armies, 
but the whoLE—FUTURe progress of human civilization.
 There were eleven MEMBERS—OF—that COUNCIL—OF—war, 
Ten were the generals,
 who were then annually elected at Athens, 
one for each of the local tribes into which the Athenians were divided, 
Each general led the men
 of his own tribe, 
each was invested with equal MILITARY authority.
 One also of the Archons was associated with them in the joint command of the collective force, 
This magistrate was termed the Polemarch or
 War-Ruler: he had THE—PRIVILEGE—OF—leading the right wing of THE—ARMY in battle, 
of taking part in all councils of war, 
 A noble Athenian, 
named Callimachus, 
was THE—WAR-Ruler of this year;  
 and as such, 
stood
 listening to the earnest discussion of the ten generals, 
 They had, 
deep matter for anxiety, 
though little aware how momentous to mankind were the votes they were about to give, 
or how the generations
 to come would read with interest that record of their debate, 
They saw before them the invading forces of a mighty empire, 
which had in the
 last fifty years shattered and enslaved nearly all the kingdoms and principalities of the then known world, 
They knew that all the resources
 of their own country were comprised in the little army entrusted to their guidance, 
They saw before them a chosen host of the Great King
 sent to wreak his special wrath on that country, 
on the other insolent little Greek community, 
which had dared to aid his rebels
 and burn the capital of one of his provinces, 
That victorious host had ALREADY fulfilled half its mission of vengeance, 
Eretria, 
 confederate of Athens in the bold march against Sardis nine YEARS—BEFORE, 
had fallen in the last few days;  
 and the Athenian generals could discern from the heights the ISLAND of AEgilia, 
in which THE—PERSIANS
 had deposited their Eretrian prisoners, 
whom they had reserved to be led away captives into Upper Asia, 
there to hear their doom from the lips of King Darius himself, 
Moreover, 
THE—MEN—OF—Athens knew that in the camp before them was their own banished tyrant, 
Hippias, 
who was seeking to
 be reinstated by foreign scimitars in despotic sway over any remnant of his countrymen that might survive the sack of their town, 
might be
 left behind as too worthless for leading away into Median bondage.
 The numerical disparity between the force which the Athenian commanders had under them, 
that which they were called on to encounter, 
was
 fearfully apparent to some of THE—COUNCIL, 
The historians who wrote nearest to the time of the battle do not pretend to give any detailed
 statements of the numbers engaged, 
but there are sufficient data for our making a general estimate, 
Every free Greek was trained to military
 duty: and, 
from the incessant border wars between the different states,
 few Greeks reached THE—AGE of manhood without having seen some service.
 But the muster-roll of free Athenian citizens of an age fit for MILITARY duty never exceeded thirty thousand, 
at this epoch probably did not
 amount to two-thirds of that number, 
the poorer portion of these were unprovided with the equipments, 
untrained to the
 operations of the regular infantry, 
Some detachments of the best armed troops would be required to garrison THE—CITY itself, 
man the various fortified posts IN—THE—TERRITORY;  
 so that it is impossible to reckon the fully equipped force that marched from Athens to MARATHON,
 when THE—NEWS of the PERSIAn landing arrived, 
at higher than ten thousand men, 
[The historians who lived long after the time of the
 battle, 
such as Justin, 
Plutarch and others, 
give ten thousand as the number of the Athenian army, 
Not much reliance could be placed on their  authority, 
if unsupported by other evidence;  
 but a calculation made from the number of the Athenian free population remarkably confirms it, 
 For THE—DATA of this, 
see Boeck's "Public Economy of Athens," VOLUME—I—PAGE—45.
 Some METOIKOI probably served as Hoplites at MARATHON, 
but the number of resident aliens at Athens cannot have been large at this period]
 With one exception, 
the other Greeks held back from aiding them, 
Sparta had promised assistance;  
 but THE—PERSIANS had landed on the sixth day of the moon, 
a religious scruple delayed the march of Spartan troops
 till the moon should have reached its full, 
From one quarter only, 
that a most unexpected one, 
did Athens receive aid at the moment of her great peril.
 —FOR—SOME—YEARS—BEFORE this time, 
the little state of Plataea in Boeotia,
 being hard pressed by her powerful neighbour, 
Thebes, 
had asked THE—PROTECTION—OF—Athens, 
had owed to an Athenian army the rescue of her independence, 
Now when it was noised over Greece that the Mede had come from the uttermost parts of the earth to destroy Athens, 
the brave
 Plataeans, 
unsolicited, 
marched with their whole force to assist in the defence, 
to share the fortunes of their benefactors, 
The general
 levy of the Plataeans only amounted to a thousand men: and this little column, 
marching from their city along the southern ridge of Mount
 Cithaeron, 
thence across the Attic territory, 
joined the Athenian forces above MARATHON almost immediately before the battle, 
 The reinforcement was numerically small;  
 but the gallant spirit of the men who composed it must have made it of tenfold value to the Athenians: and
 its presence must have gone far to dispel the cheerless feeling of being deserted and friendless, 
which the delay of the Spartan succours was calculated to create among the Athenian ranks.
 This generous daring of their weak but true-hearted ally was never forgotten at Athens, 
 The Plataeans were made the FELLOW—COUNTRYMEN of the Athenians, 
except the right of exercising certain political functions;  
 and from that time forth —IN—THE—solemn sacrifices at Athens,
 THE—PUBLIC prayers were offered up for a joint blessing from Heaven upon the Athenians, 
the Plataeans also, 
[Mister Grote observes (VOLUME—IV—PAGE—484), 
that
 "this volunteer march of the whole Plataean force to MARATHON is one of the most affecting incidents of all Grecian history." In
 truth, 
the whole career of Plataea, 
the friendship, 
strong even unto death, 
between her and Athens, 
form one of the most affecting episodes
 —IN—THE—HISTORY—OF—antiquity, 
In the Peloponnesian War the Plataeans AGAIN were true to the Athenians against all risks and all calculation of self-interest;  
 and the destruction of Plataea was the consequence.
 There are few nobler passages in the classics than the speech in which the Plataean prisoners of war, 
after the memorable siege of their city,
 justify before their Spartan executioners their loyal adherence to Athens, 
(See Thucydides—LIBER—III—SECTION—53-60.)] 
After the junction of the column from Plataea, 
the Athenians commanders
 must have had under them about eleven thousand fully-armed and disciplined infantry, 
probably a larger number of irregular light-armed troops;  
 as, 
besides the poorer citizens who went to the field armed with javelins, 
cutlasses, 
targets, 
each regular
 heavy-armed soldier was attended in the camp by one or more slaves, 
who were armed like the inferior freemen, 
[At —BATTLE—OF—Plataea, 
11—YEARS after MARATHON, 
each of the 8 thousand Athenian regular infantry who served there, 
was ATTENDED—BY a light-armed slave.
 (Herod.—LIBER—viii—CHAPTER—28,29.)] 
Cavalry or archers the Athenians (on this occasion) had none: and THE—USe in the field of MILITARY engines was not
 at that period introduced into ancient warfare.
 Contrasted with their own scanty forces, 
the Greek commanders saw stretched before them, 
along the shores of the winding bay, 
the tents
 and shipping of the varied nations that marched to do the bidding of the —KING—OF—THE—Eastern world, 
The difficulty of finding transports and
 of securing provisions would form the only —LIMIT to the numbers of a PERSIAn army, 
Nor is there any reason to suppose the estimate of Justin
 exaggerated, 
who rates at a hundred thousand the force which on this occasion had sailed, 
under the satraps Datis and Artaphernes, 
from the
 Cilician shores, 
against the devoted coasts of Euboea and Attica.
 And after largely deducting from this total, 
so as to allow for mere mariners and camp followers, 
there must still have remained fearful odds
 against THE—NATIONAL levies of the Athenians, 
Nor could Greek generals then feel that confidence —IN—THE—superior quality of their troops which
 ever since —BATTLE—OF—MARATHON has animated Europeans in KONFLIKTs with Asiatics;  
for instance, 
in the after struggles between Greece and PERSIA, 
or when THE—ROMAN—legions encountered the myriads of
 Mithridates and Tigranes, 
or as is the case in the Indian campaigns of our own regiments, 
On the contrary, 
up to THE—DAY of MARATHON the Medes
 and PERSIAns were reputed invincible, 
They had more than once met Greek troops in Asia Minor, 
in Cyprus, 
in Egypt, 
had invariably beaten them, 
Nothing can be stronger than the expressions used by the —EARLY, Creek writers respecting the terror which the name of the Medes
 inspired, 
the prostration of men's spirits before the apparently resistless career of the PERSIAn arms, 
It is therefore, 
little to be
 wondered at, 
that 5 of the ten Athenian generals shrank from the prospect of fighting a pitched battle against an enemy so superior in
 numbers, 
so formidable in MILITARY renown, 
Their own position of the heights was strong, 
offered great advantages to a small defending
 force against assailing masses, 
They deemed it mere foolhardiness to descend into the plain to be trampled down by the Asiatic horse,
 overwhelmed with the archery, 
or cut to pieces by the invincible veterans of Cambyses and Cyrus, 
Sparta, 
the great war-state of
 Greece, 
had been applied to, 
had promised succour to Athens, 
though the religious observance which the Dorians paid to certain times and
 seasons had for the present delayed their march, 
Was it not wise, 
at any rate, 
to wait till the Spartans came up, 
to have the help of the
 best troops in Greece, 
before they exposed themselves to the shock of the dreaded Medes?
 Specious as these reasons might appear, 
the other 5 generals were for speedier and bolder operations, 
And, 
fortunately for Athens and for the
 world, 
one of them was a man, 
not only of THE—HIGHest MILITARY genius,
 but also of that energetic character which impresses its own type and ideas upon spirits feebler in conception.
 Miltiades was the HEAD—OF—one of THE—NOBLESt houses at Athens: he ranked the AEacidae among his ancestry, 
the blood of Achilles flowed in
 the veins of the hero of MARATHON, 
One of his immediate ancestors had acquired the dominion of the Thracian Chersonese, 
thus the family
 became —TIME—AT—THE—SAME Athenian citizens and Thracian princes, 
This occurred —AT—THE—TIME—WHEN Pisistratus was tyrant of Athens, 
Two of the
 relatives of Miltiades--an uncle of the same name, 
a brother named Stesagoras--had ruled the Chersonese before Miltiades became its prince.
 He had been brought up at Athens IN—THE—HOUSE of his father Cimon,
[HERODOTUS—LIBER—VI— c, 
102] 
who was renowned —THROUGHOUT Greece for his victories in the Olympic chariot-races, 
who must have been possessed of great wealth, 
The sons of Pisistratus, 
who succeeded their father in the tyranny at Athens, 
caused Cimon to be assassinated, 
but they treated the young Miltiades with favour and kindness;  
 and when his brother Stesagoras died in the Chersonese, 
they sent him out there as LORD—OF—the principality, 
This was about twenty-eight YEARS—BEFORE the battle
 of MARATHON, 
it is with his arrival in the Chersonese that our 1, 
knowledge of the career and character of Miltiades commences, 
We
 find, 
in the 1, 
act recorded of him, 
proof of the same resolute and unscrupulous spirit that marked his mature age, 
His brother's authority
 in the principality had been shaken by war and revolt: Miltiades determined to rule more securely, 
On his arrival he kept close within
 his house, 
as if he was mourning for his brother, 
The principal men of the Chersonese, 
hearing of this, 
assembled from all THE—TOWNs and
 districts, 
went together to THE—HOUSE of Miltiades on a visit of condolence, 
As soon as he had thus got them in his power, 
he made
 them all prisoners, 
He then asserted and maintained his own absolute authority in the PENINSULA, 
taking into his pay a body of 5 hundred
 regular troops, 
strengthening his interest by marrying the daughter of THE—KING—OF—the neighbouring Thracians.
 When the PERSIAn power was extended to the Hellespont and its neighbourhood, 
Miltiades, 
as prince of the Chersonese, 
submitted to King Darius;  
 and he was one of the numerous tributary rulers who led their contingents of men to serve in the PERSIAn army in the expedition
 against Scythia, 
Miltiades and the vassal Greeks of Asia Minor were left by the PERSIAn king in charge of the bridge across the Danube, 
when
 the invading army crossed that river, 
plunged into the wilds of THE—COUNTRY that now is Russia, 
in vain pursuit of THE—ANCESTORS of the
 modern Cossacks, 
On learning the reverses that Darius met with —IN—THE—scythian wilderness, 
Miltiades proposed to his companions that they
 should break the bridge down, 
leave the PERSIAn king and his army to perish by famine and the Scythian arrows, 
THE—RULERS—OF—the Asiatic
 Greek cities whom Miltiades addressed, 
shrank from this bold and ruthless stroke against the PERSIAn power, 
Darius returned in safety, 
But it was known what advice Miltiades had given;  
 and the vengeance of Darius was thenceforth specially directed against the man who had counselled such a deadly blow against his empire and his person.
 The OCCUPATION—OF—he PERSIAn arms in other quarters left Miltiades —FOR—SOME—YEARS after this in possession of the Chersonese;  
 but it was precarious and interrupted, 
He, 
however, 
availed himself of the opportunity which his position gave him of conciliating the goodwill
 of his FELLOW—COUNTRYMEN at Athens, 
by conquering and placing under Athenian authority the islands of Lemnos and Imbros, 
to which Athens had
 ancient claims, 
but which she had never previously been able to bring into complete subjection, 
At length, 
in 
_04940000            
the complete suppression of the Ionian revolt by THE—PERSIANS left their armies and fleets at liberty to act against the enemies of the Great King to the
 west of the Hellespont, 
A strong squadron of Phoenician galleys was sent against the Chersonese, 
Miltiades knew that resistance was hopeless;  
 and while the Phoenicians were at Tenedos, 
he loaded 5 galleys with all the treasure that he could collect, 
sailed away for Athens, 
The
 Phoenicians fell in with him, 
chased him hard along the north of the AEgean, 
One of his galleys, 
on board of which was his eldest son,
 Metiochus, 
was actually captured;  
 but Miltiades, 
with the other four,
 succeeded in reaching the friendly coast of Imbros in safety, 
Thence he afterwards proceeded to Athens, 
resumed his station as a free citizen of the Athenian commonwealth.
 The Athenians —AT—THIS—TIME had recently expelled Hippias, 
the son of Pisistratus, 
the last of their tyrants, 
They were in the full glow of their newly-recovered liberty and equality;  
 and THE—CONSTITUTIONal changes of Cleisthenes had inflamed their republican zeal to the utmost.
 Miltiades had enemies at Athens;  
 and these, 
availing themselves of THE—STATE—OF—popular feeling, 
brought him to trial for his life for having been tyrant of the Chersonese, 
The change did not necessarily import any
 acts of cruelty or wrong to individuals: it was FOUNDED on so specific law;  
 but it was based on the horror with which THE—GREEKS of that age regarded every man who made himself compulsory master of his fellow-men,
 and exercised irresponsible dominion over them, 
The fact of Miltiades having so ruled in the Chersonese was undeniable;  
 but the question which the Athenians, 
assembled in judgment, 
must have tried, 
was, 
whether Miltiades, 
by becoming tyrant of the Chersonese, 
deserved punishment as an Athenian citizen, 
The eminent service that he had done THE—STATE in conquering Lemnos and Imbros for it, 
pleaded strongly in his favour, 
 THE—PEOPLE refused to convict him, 
He stood high in public opinion;  
 and when the coming —INVASÃON—OF—THE—PERSIANS was known, 
THE—PEOPLE wisely elected him one of their generals for  
             —THE —YEAR.
 Two other men of signal eminence —IN—HISTORY, 
though their renown was achieved at a later period than that of Miltiades, 
were also among the
 ten Athenian generals at MARATHON, 
One was Themistocles, 
THE—FUTURE founder of the Athenian navy and the destined victor of Salamis: the
 other was Aristides, 
who afterwards led the Athenian troops at Plataea,
 and whose integrity and just popularity acquired for his country, 
when THE—PERSIANS had finally been repulsed, 
the advantageous pre-eminence of
 being acknowledged by half of THE—GREEKS as their impartial leader and protector, 
It is not recorded what part either Themistocles or Aristides
 took in the debate of THE—COUNCIL—OF—war at MARATHON, 
But from the character of Themistocles, 
his boldness, 
his intuitive genius for
 extemporizing the best measures in every emergency (a quality which the greatest of historians ascribes to him beyond all his contemporaries),
we may well believe that the vote of Themistocles was for prompt and decisive ACTION, 
[See the character of Themistocles in the 138. section of the 1, 
book of Thucydides, 
especially the last sentence] 
On
 the vote of Aristides it may be more difficult to speculate, 
His predilection for the Spartans may have made him wish to wait till they came up;  
 but, 
though circumspect, 
he was neither timid as a soldier nor as a politician;  
 and the bold advice of Miltiades may probably have found in Aristides a willing, 
most assuredly it found in him a candid, 
hearer.
 Miltiades felt no hesitation as to the course which the Athenian army ought to pursue: and earnestly did he press his opinion on his
 brother-generals, 
Practically acquainted with the ORGANIZATION of the PERSIAn armies, 
Miltiades was convinced of the superiority of the Greek troops, 
if properly handled: he saw with THE—MILITARY eye of a great general the advantage which the position of the forces gave him for
 a sudden attack, 
as a profound politician he felt the perils of remaining inactive, 
of giving treachery time to ruin the Athenian cause.
 One officer in THE—COUNCIL—OF—war had NOT—YET voted, 
This was Callimachus, 
THE—WAR-Ruler, 
The votes of the generals were 5 and
 5, 
so that the voice of Callimachus would be decisive.
 On that vote, 
in all human probability, 
the destiny of all the nations of THE—WORLD depended, 
Miltiades turned to him, 
in simple soldierly
 eloquence, 
the substance of which we may read faithfully reported in HERODOTUS, 
who had conversed with the veterans of MARATHON, 
the great
 Athenian thus adjured his countryman to vote for giving battle:--
 "It now rests with you, 
Callimachus, 
either to enslave Athens, 
or, 
by assuring her freedom, 
to win yourself an immortality of fame, 
such as
 not even Harmodius and Aristogeiton have acquired, 
For never, 
since the Athenians were a people, 
were they in such danger as they are in —AT—THIS—MOMENT, 
If they bow the knee to these Medes, 
they are to be given up to Hippias, 
you know what they then will have to suffer, 
But if Athens
 COMES victorious out of this contest, 
she has it in her to become the 1, 
city of Greece, 
Your vote is to decide whether we are to join
 battle or not, 
If we do not bring on a battle presently, 
some factious intrigue will disunite the Athenians, 
THE—CITY will be betrayed to
 the Medes, 
But if we fight, 
before there is anything rotten IN—THE—STATE—OF—Athens, 
I believe that, 
provided the Gods will give fair play and
 no favour, 
we are able to get the best of it in the engagement."
[HERODOTUS—LIBER—VI—SECTION—209, 
The 116th section is to my mind clear proof that HERODOTUS had personally conversed with Epizelus, 
one of the
 veterans of MARATHON, 
The substance of the speech of Miltiades would naturally become known by THE—REPORT of some of his colleagues]
 The vote of the brave War-Ruler was gained;  
 THE—COUNCIL determined to give battle;  
 and such was the ascendancy and MILITARY eminence of Miltiades, 
that his brother-generals, 
one and all, 
gave up their days of
 command to him, 
cheerfully acted under his orders, 
Fearful, 
however,
 of creating any jealousy, 
of so failing to obtain the co-operation of all parts of his small army, 
Miltiades waited till THE—DAY when the
 chief command would have come round to him in regular rotation, 
before he led the troops against the enemy.
             —DURING  this interval, The inaction of the Asiatic commanders, appears strange at 1, sight;   but
			 Hippias was with them, and , they and he were aware of their chance of a bloodless conquest through the machinations of his partisans among the Athenians, 
The nature of the ground also explains, 
in many points, 
the tactics of the opposite generals
 before the battle, 
as well as THE—OPERATIONs of the troops
             —DURING—the engagement.
 The plain of MARATHON, 
which is about twenty-two miles distant from Athens, 
lies along the bay of the same name on the north-eastern coast of Attica, 
The plain is nearly in the form of a crescent, 
about 6 miles in length, 
It is about two miles broad in the centre, 
where the
 space between the mountains and the sea is greatest, 
but it narrows towards either extremity, 
the mountains coming close down to the water
 at the horns of the bay, 
There is a valley trending inwards from the middle of the plain, 
a ravine COMES down to it to the southward.
 Elsewhere it, 
is closely girt round on the land side by rugged LIMEStone mountains, 
which are thickly studded with pines, 
olive-trees, 
 cedars, 
overgrown with the myrtle, 
arbutus, 
the other low odoriferous shrubs that everywhere perfume the Attic air, 
The level of the ground is now varied by the mound raised over those who fell in the battle, 
but it was an unbroken plain when THE—PERSIANS encamped on it.
 There are marshes at each end, 
which are dry in spring and summer, 
then offer no obstruction to the horseman, 
but are commonly flooded with
 rain, 
so rendered impracticable for cavalry, 
—AUTUMN—IN—THE,, 
the time of year at which the ACTION took place.
 THE—GREEKS, 
lying encamped on the mountains, 
could watch every movement of THE—PERSIANS on the plain below, 
while they were enabled completely to mask their own, 
Miltiades also had, 
from his position, 
the power of giving battle whenever he pleased, 
or of delaying it at his discretion,
 unless Datis were to attempt the perilous operation of storming the heights.
 If we turn to the map of the old world, 
to test the comparative territorial resources of the two states whose armies were now about to
 come into KONFLIKT, 
the immense preponderance of THE—MATERIAL power of the PERSIAn king over that of the Athenian republic is more striking
 than any similar contrast which history can supply, 
It has been truly remarked, 
that, 
in estimating mere areas, 
Attica, 
containing on
 its whole surface only seven hundred square miles, 
shrinks into insignificance if compared with many a baronial fief of the Middle Ages, 
or many a colonial allotment of modern times, 
 Its antagonist, 
the PERSIAn empire, 
comprised the whole of modern Asiatic and much of modern European TURKEY, 
 the modern KINGDOM—of—PERSIA, 
 the countries of modern Georgia, 
Armenia, 
Balkh, 
the Punjaub, 
AFGHANISTAN, 
Beloochistan, 
Egypt, 
Tripoli.
 Nor could a European, 
in—THE—BEGINNING—OF the fifth JH. BEFORE CH., 
look upon this huge accumulation of power beneath the sceptre of a
 single Asiatic ruler, 
with the indifference with which we now observe on the map the extensive dominions of modern Oriental sovereigns, 
For, 
as
 has been ALREADY remarked, 
before MARATHON was fought, 
the prestige of success and of supposed superiority of race was on the side of
 the Asiatic against THE—EUropean, 
Asia was the original seat of human societies and long before any trace can be found of the inhabitants of
 the rest of THE—WORLD having emerged from the rudest barbarism, 
we can perceive that mighty and brilliant empires flourished in the Asiatic continent, 
They appear before us through the twilight of primeval history, 
dim and indistinct, 
but massive and majestic, 
like mountains in the —EARLY, dawn.
 Instead, 
of the infinite variety and restless change which have characterised the institutions and fortunes of European states
 ever since the commencement of the civilization of our continent, 
a monotonous uniformity pervades the histories of nearly all Oriental
 empires, 
from the most ancient down to the most recent times, 
They are characterised by the rapidity of their —EARLY, conquests;  
 by the immense extent of the dominions comprised in them;  
 by THE—ESTABLISHMENT—OF—a satrap or pacha —SYSTEM of governing the provinces;  
 by an invariable and speedy degeneracy in the princes of THE—ROYAL—house, 
the effeminate nurslings of the seraglio succeeding to THE—WARrior-sovereigns reared in the camp;  
 and by the internal anarchy and INSURRECTIONs, 
which indicate and accelerate THE—DECLINE and FALL—OF—those unwieldy and ill-organized fabrics of power, 
It is also a striking fact that THE—GOVERNMENTts of all the great Asiatic empires have in all ages been absolute despotisms.
 And Heeren is right in connecting this with another great fact, 
which is important from its influence both on the political and the social life of Asiatics, 
"Among all the considerable nations of Inner Asia, 
the paternal government of every household was corrupted by polygamy;  
 where that custom exists, 
a good political constitution is impossible, 
 Fathers being converted into domestic despots, 
are ready to pay the same abject obedience to their sovereign which they exact from their family and
 dependants in their domestic economy." We should bear in mind also the inseparable connexion between THE—STATE RELIGION and all legislation,
 which has always prevailed in THE—EAST, 
the constant existence of a powerful sacerdotal body, 
exercising some check, 
though precarious and
 irregular, 
over the throne itself, 
grasping at all CIVIL—ADMINISTRATION,
 claiming the supreme control of education, 
stereotyping the lines in which literature and science must move, 
limiting the extent to which
 it shall be lawful for the human mind to prosecute its inquiries.
that projects of violence and warfare are regarded among civilized states
 with gradually increasing aversion, 
 For a writer, 
therefore, 
of the present day to choose battles for his favourite topic,
 merely because they were battles, 
merely because so many myriads of troops were arrayed in them, and 
so many hundreds or thousands of human
 beings stabbed, 
             —DURING—the m, 
There is undeniable greatness in the disciplined courage, and 
And the powers of the human intellect are rarely more strongly displayed than they are in THE—COMMANDER, 
who regulates,
 arrays, and 
in the midst of peril reflects on all, and 
as the vicissitudes of the storm of slaughter require, 
Catiline was as brave a soldier as Leonidas, and 
Alva surpassed THE—PRINCE—OF—Orange in the field;  
 and Suwarrow was THE—MILITARY superior of Kosciusko, 
independently of the moral WORTH—OF—the combatants, 
ON—ACCOUNT—OF—their enduring
 importance, and 
by reason of the practical influence on our own social and political condition, 
which we can trace up to the results of those engagements, 
 Hallam has admirably expressed this in his remarks on THE—VICTORY gained by CHARLES Martel, 
 He says of it, 
the Metaurus,
 CHALONS, and 
Leipsic." It was the perusal of this note of Hallam's that 1, 
I certainly differ from that great historian as to the comparative importance of some of the battles which he thus enumerates, and 
It is probable, 
 and in the degree of interest with which they watch the career, and 
 But our concurrence in our catalogues is of little moment,
Most valuable also is the mental discipline which is thus acquired, and 
 not only to observe what has been, and 
We learn to apply the juster —STANDARD of seeing what the
 circumstances and the probabilities were that surrounded a statesman or a general —AT—THE—TIME—WHEN he decided on his plan: we value him not by
to adopt the expressive Greek word,
 for which our language gives no equivalent.
which at 1, 
 and rivet our attention, and 
the encounters between THE—GREEKS
 and PERSIAns, 
seems to me inferior in interest to the defeat before
 Syracuse, 
fatal check, and 
as compared with the Metaurus: and, 
on the same principle, 
the subsequent great battles of THE—REVOLUTIONary
 war appear to me inferior in their importance to Valmy, 
which 1, 
 I am aware that a little activity of imagination, and 
I speak of
 the obvious and important agency of one fact upon another, and 
by which we perceive the sequence of human affairs to be usually regulated;  
 and in which we recognise emphatically the wisdom and power of the Supreme Lawgiver, 
 CONTENTS.
CHAPTER—I
 —BATTLE—OF—MARATHON
 Explanatory Remarks on some of the circumstances of the —BATTLE—OF—MARATHON.
, and 
_04130000            THE—DEFEAT—OF—the Athenians at Syracuse,.
 DEFEAT—OF—THE ATHENIANS AT SYRACUSE,_0413.
 Synopsis of Events between THE—DEFEAT—OF—the Athenians at Syracuse and
 —BATTLE—OF—ARBELA.
 —BATTLE—OF—ARBELA,_0331.
 —BATTLE—OF—THE—METAURUS,_0207.
 Synopsis of Events between —BATTLE—OF—THE—Metaurus,_0207, 
 ARMINIUS's VICTORy over THE—ROMAN—Legions under VARUS, 
0009.
 VICTORY—OF—ARMINIUS OVER THE—ROMAN—LEGIONS UNDER VARUS, 
 ARMINIUS, 
Synopsis of Events between ARMINIUS's VICTORy over VARUS and
 —BATTLE—OF—CHALONS.
 —BATTLE—OF—CHALONS, 
0451.
 Synopsis of Events between —BATTLE—OF—CHALONS, 
04510000             ,and 
 —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
0732.
 —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
 Synopsis of Events between —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
07320000             and the Battle
 of Hastings, 
1066.
 —BATTLE—OF—HASTINGS, 
 Synopsis of Events between —BATTLE—OF—Hastings, 
10660000             ,
Joan
 of Arc's VICTORY—AT—Orleans, 
1429.
 JOAN—OF—ARC'S VICTORY OVER THE—ENGLISH AT ORLEANS, 
 Synopsis of Events between JOAN—OF—ARC's VICTORY—AT—Orleans, 
1429,
 and THE—DEFEAT—OF—the Spanish Armada, 
1588.
 THE—DEFEAT—OF—THE SPANISH ARMADA, 
 Synopsis of events between THE—DEFEAT—OF—the Spanish Armada 1588,
 and —BATTLE—OF—Blenheim, 
1704.
 —BATTLE—OF—BLENHEIM, 
 Synopsis of Events between —BATTLE—OF—Blenheim, 
17040000             ,
the Battle
 of Pultowa, 
1709.
 —BATTLE—OF—PULTOWA, 
 Synopsis of Events between —BATTLE—OF—Pultowa, 
17090000             ,
the Defeat
 of Burgoyne at Saratoga, 
1777.
 VICTORY—OF—THE AMERICANS OVER BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA, 
 Synopsis of Events between THE—DEFEAT—OF—Burgoyne at Saratoga, 
17770000             ,
 —BATTLE—OF—Valmy, 
1792.
 —BATTLE—OF—VALMY.
 Synopsis of Events between —BATTLE—OF—Valmy, 
17920000             ,
the —BATTLE—OF
 Waterloo, 
1815.
 —BATTLE—OF—WATERLOO, 
 CHAPTER—I.--THE—BATTLE—OF—MARATHON.
 "Quibus actus uterque
 EUROPAe atque Asiae fatis concurrerit orbis."
a COUNCIL—OF—Athenian
 officers was summoned on the slope of one of the mountains that
 immediate SUBJECT—OF—their meeting was to consider whether they should
 give battle to an enemy that lay encamped on the shore beneath them, 
 on the result of their deliberations depended not merely the fate of two
 armies, 
one for each of the local
 tribes into which the Athenians were divided, 
 One also of the Archons was associated with them in the joint command
 of the collective force, 
 War-Ruler: he had THE—PRIVILEGE—OF—leading the right wing of THE—ARMY
 in battle, 
A noble Athenian,
 named Callimachus, 
was THE—WAR-Ruler of this year, 
They had,
 indeed, 
though little aware how momentous to
 mankind were the votes they were about to give, 
They saw
 before them the invading forces of a mighty empire, 
 last fifty years shattered and enslaved nearly all the kingdoms and
 principalities of the then known world, 
 of their own country were comprised in the little army entrusted to
 their guidance, 
on the other
 insolent little Greek community, 
That victorious host
 had ALREADY fulfilled half its mission of vengeance, 
 confederate of Athens in the bold march against Sardis nine years
 before, 
had fallen in the last few days, 
 and the Athenian generals could
 discern from the heights the ISLAND of AEgilia, 
whom they had reserved to be led
 away captives into Upper Asia, 
there to hear their doom from the lips of
 King Darius himself, 
THE—MEN—OF—Athens knew that in the camp
 before them was their own banished tyrant, 
 be reinstated by foreign scimitars in despotic sway over any remnant of
 his countrymen that might survive the sack of their town, 
 The numerical disparity between the force which the Athenian commanders
 had under them, 
The historians who wrote
 nearest to the time of the battle do not pretend to give any detailed
but there are sufficient data for
 our making a general estimate, 
 But the muster-roll of free Athenian citizens of an age fit for military
 duty never exceeded thirty thousand, 
the poorer portion
 of these were unprovided with the equipments, 
Some detachments of the best armed
 troops would be required to garrison THE—CITY itself, 
man the
 various fortified posts IN—THE—TERRITORY, 
 so that it is impossible to
 reckon the fully equipped force that marched from Athens to MARATHON,
at higher than ten
 thousand men, 
give ten thousand as the
 number of the Athenian army, 
Not much reliance could be placed on their
 authority, 
if unsupported by other evidence, 
 but a calculation made from
 the number of the Athenian free population remarkably confirms it, 
For
 THE—DATA of this, 
but the number of
 resident aliens at Athens cannot have been large at this period]
Sparta
 had promised assistance, 
 but THE—PERSIANS had landed on the sixth day
 of the moon, 
 that a most unexpected one, 
did Athens receive aid at the moment of her
 great peril.
had asked the
 PROTECTION—OF—Athens, 
had owed to an Athenian army the rescue of her
 independence, 
Now when it was noised over Greece that the Mede had
 come from the uttermost parts of the earth to destroy Athens, 
marched with their whole force to assist in the
 defence, 
 levy of the Plataeans only amounted to a thousand men: and this little
 column, 
joined the Athenian
 forces above MARATHON almost immediately before the battle, 
 reinforcement was numerically small, 
 but the gallant spirit of the men
 who composed it must have made it of tenfold value to the Athenians: and
 its presence must have gone far to dispel the cheerless feeling of being
 deserted and friendless, 
which the delay of the Spartan succours was
 calculated to create among the Athenian ranks.
 This generous daring of their weak but true-hearted ally was never
 forgotten at Athens, 
The Plataeans were made the FELLOW—COUNTRYMEN
 of the Athenians, 
except the right of exercising certain political
 functions, 
 THE—PUBLIC prayers were offered up for a joint blessing from Heaven upon
 the Athenians, 
that "this volunteer march of the whole Plataean force to MARATHON
 is one of the most affecting incidents of all Grecian history." In
strong even unto
 death, 
In the Peloponnesian War the Plataeans
 AGAIN were true to the Athenians against all risks and all calculation
 of self-interest, 
 There are few nobler passages in the classics than the speech in which
 the Plataean prisoners of war, 
 (See Thucydides——LIBER—III—SECTION—53-60)]
 After the junction of the column from Plataea, 
 must have had under them about eleven thousand fully-armed and
 disciplined infantry, 
probably a larger number of irregular
 light-armed troops, 
besides the poorer citizens who went to
 the field armed with javelins, 
who
 were armed like the inferior freemen, 
eleven
 years after MARATHON, 
each of the 8 thousand Athenian regular
 infantry who served there, 
was ATTENDED—BY a light-armed slave, 
(Herod, 
—LIBER—viii—CHAPTER—28,29)] 
Cavalry or archers the Athenians (on this
 occasion) had none: and THE—USe in the field of MILITARY engines was not
the Greek commanders saw
 stretched before them, 
 and shipping of the varied nations that marched to do the bidding of the
 —KING—OF—THE—Eastern world, 
 of securing provisions would form the only —LIMIT to the numbers of a
 PERSIAn army, 
who rates at a hundred thousand the force which on this
 occasion had sailed, 
so as to allow for mere
 mariners and camp followers, 
Nor could Greek generals
 then feel that confidence —IN—THE—superior quality of their troops which
in the after struggles between Greece
 and PERSIA, 
up to THE—DAY of MARATHON the Medes and PERSIAns were reputed invincible, 
little to be wondered at, 
that 5 of the ten Athenian generals shrank from the
 prospect of fighting a pitched battle against an enemy so superior in numbers, 
Their own position on the heights was strong, 
offered great advantages to a small defending force against assailing masses, 
the great war-state of Greece, 
though
 the religious observance which the Dorians paid to certain times and seasons had for the present delayed their march, 
fortunately for Athens and for THE—WORLD, 
the blood of Achilles flowed in the veins of the hero of MARATHON, 
Two of the relatives of Miltiades--an uncle of the same name, 
a brother named
 Stesagoras--had ruled the Chersonese before Miltiades became its prince.
who was renowned —THROUGHOUT Greece for his
 victories in the Olympic chariot-races, 
who succeeded their father in
 the tyranny at Athens, 
This was about twenty-eight YEARS—BEFORE the —BATTLE—OF—MARATHON, 
it is with his arrival in the Chersonese that our 1.
 knowledge of the career and character of Miltiades commences, 
We find, 
His brother's authority in the principality had been shaken by war and revolt: Miltiades determined to rule more securely, 
On his arrival he kept close within his house, 
he made them all prisoners, 
He then asserted and maintained his own absolute
 authority in the PENINSULA, 
 and he was one of the numerous tributary rulers who led their contingents of men to serve in the PERSIAn army in the expedition against Scythia, 
in vain pursuit of THE—ANCESTORS of the modern Cossacks, 
THE—RULERS—OF—the Asiatic Greek cities whom Miltiades addressed, 
shrank from this bold and
 ruthless stroke against the PERSIAn power, 
_04940000            the complete suppression of the Ionian revolt by THE—PERSIANS left their armies and
 fleets at liberty to act against the enemies of the Great King to THE—WEST of the Hellespont, 
The Phoenicians fell in with him, 
on board of which was his eldest son, 
Metiochus, 
with the other four, 
succeeded in reaching the friendly coast of Imbros in safety, 
The charge did not necessarily import any acts of cruelty or wrong to individuals: it was FOUNDED on so specific law;  
whether
 Miltiades, 
THE—PEOPLE refused to convict him, 
though their renown was
 achieved at a later period than that of Miltiades, 
were also among the ten Athenian generals at MARATHON, 
 THE—PERSIANS had finally been repulsed, 
It is not recorded what part either Themistocles or Aristides took in the debate of THE—COUNCIL—OF—war at MARATHON, 
 we may well believe that the vote of Themistocles was for prompt and decisive ACTION, 
On the vote of Aristides it may be more difficult to speculate, 
 Miltiades felt no hesitation as to the course which the Athenian army ought to pursue: and earnestly did he press his opinion on his brother-generals, 
Miltiades was convinced of the superiority of the Greek
 troops, 
The votes of the generals were 5 and 5, 
in simple soldierly eloquence, 
the substance of which we may read faithfully reported in
 HERODOTUS, 
by
 assuring her freedom, 
such as not even Harmodius and Aristogeiton have acquired, 
But if Athens COMES victorious out of this contest, 
Your vote is to decide whether we are to join battle or not, 
THE—CITY will be betrayed to the Medes, 
before there is anything rotten IN—THE—STATE
 of Athens, 
provided the Gods will give fair play and no favour, 
one of the veterans of MARATHON, 
gave up their days of command to him, 
of creating any jealousy, 
of so failing to obtain the co-operation
 of all parts of his small army, 
 The inaction of the Asiatic commanders, 
             —DURING this interval, 
appears strange at 1, 
sight;  
 but Hippias was with them, 
they and he were
 aware of their chance of a bloodless conquest through the machinations of his partisans among the Athenians, 
where the space between the mountains and the sea is greatest, 
but it narrows
 towards either extremity, 
the mountains coming close down to the water at the horns of the bay, 
could watch every movement
 of THE—PERSIANS on the plain below, 
to test the comparative
 territorial resources of the two states whose armies were now about to
the immense preponderance of THE—MATERIAL power of
 the PERSIAn king over that of the Athenian republic is more striking than any similar contrast which history can supply, 
containing on its whole surface only seven hundred square miles, 
shrinks into
 insignificance if compared with many a baronial fief of the Middle Ages, 
Its antagonist, 
comprised the whole of modern Asiatic and much of modern
 European TURKEY, 
the modern KINGDOM—of—PERSIA, 
the countries of
 modern Georgia, 
as has been ALREADY remarked, 
the prestige
 of success and of supposed superiority of race was on the side of the Asiatic against THE—EUropean, 
we can
 perceive that mighty and brilliant empires flourished in the Asiatic continent, 
a
 monotonous uniformity pervades the histories of nearly all Oriental empires, 
the effeminate
 nurslings of the seraglio succeeding to THE—WARrior-sovereigns reared in the camp;  
which indicate
 and accelerate THE—DECLINE and FALL—OF—those unwieldy and ill-organized fabrics of power, 
which is
 important from its influence both on the political and the social life of Asiatics, 
Fathers being converted into domestic despots, 
are ready to pay the same abject
 obedience to their sovereign which they exact from their family and
 dependants in their domestic economy." We should bear in mind also the
 inseparable connexion between THE—STATE RELIGION and all legislation,
the constant existence of a
 powerful sacerdotal body, 
stereotyping the lines in
 which literature and science must move, 
 Darkness had closed over the tents of the Macedonians, 
when ALEXANDER's
 veteran general, 
Parmenio, 
came to him, 
proposed that they should make a night attack on THE—PERSIANS, 
The King is said to have answered, 
that he scorned to such a victory, 
that ALEXANDER must conquer openly and fairly, 
Arrian justly remarks that ALEXANDER's resolution was as wise as it was spirited, 
Besides the confusion and uncertainty which are inseparable from night engagements, 
the value of ALEXANDER's victory
 would have been impaired, 
if gained under circumstances which might
 supply the enemy with any excuse for his defeat, 
encourage him to renew the contest, 
It was necessary for ALEXANDER not only to beat
 Darius, 
but to gain such a victory as should leave his rival without apology for defeat, 
without hope of recovery.
 THE—PERSIANS, 
in fact, 
expected, 
were prepared to meet a night attack, 
Such was the apprehension that Darius entertained of it, 
 he formed his troops at evening in order of battle, 
kept them under arms all night, 
The effect of this was, 
that the morning found them
 jaded and dispirited, 
while it brought their adversaries all fresh and vigorous against them.
 The written order of battle which Darius himself caused to be drawn
 up, 
fell into the hands of the Macedonians after the engagement, 
Aristobulus copied it into his journal, 
We thus possess, 
through Arrian, 
unusually authentic information as to the composition and arrangement of the PERSIAn army, 
On the extreme left were the Bactrian, 
Daan, 
Arachosian cavalry, 
Next to these Darius placed the troops from PERSIA proper, 
both horse and foot, 
Then came the Susians, 
next to these the Cadusians, 
These forces made up the left wing, 
Darius's own station was in the centre, 
This was composed of the Indians, 
the Carians, 
 Mardian archers, 
the DIVISION—OF—PERSIAns who were distinguished by the golden apples that formed knobs of their spears, 
Here also were stationed the body-guard of the PERSIAn nobility, 
Besides these, 
there were in the centre, 
formed in deep order, 
the Uxian and BABYLONian troops, 
the soldiers from the Red Sea, 
The brigade of Greek mercenaries, 
whom Darius had in his service, 
who were alone
 considered fit to stand in the charge of the Macedonian phalanx, 
was drawn up on either side of THE—ROYAL—chariot, 
The right wing was composed of the CoeloSYRIAns and Mesopotamians, 
the Medes, 
 Parthians, 
the Sacians, 
the Tapurians, 
Hyrcanians, 
Albanians, 
Sacesinae, 
In advance of the line on the left wing were placed the Scythian cavalry, 
with a thousand of the Bactrian horse, 
a hundred scythe-armed chariots, 
The elephants and fifty scythe-armed chariots were ranged in front of the centre;  
 and fifty more chariots, 
with the Armenian and Cappadocian cavalry, 
were drawn up in advance of the right wing.
 Thus arrayed, 
the great host of King Darius passed the night, 
that to many thousands of them was the last of their existence, 
The morning of the 1, 
of ;;10;;, 
two thousand one hundred and eighty-two YEARS—AGO,
 dawned slowly to their wearied watching, 
they could hear the note of
 the Macedonian trumpet sounding to arms, 
could see King ALEXANDER's
 forces descend from their tents on the heights, 
form in order of battle on the plain, 
[See CLINTON's "Fasti Hellenici."
 The battle was fought eleven days after an eclipse of the moon, 
which gives the means of fixing the precise date]
 There was deep need of skill, 
as well as of valour, 
on ALEXANDER's side;  
 and few battle-fields have witnessed more consummate generalship than was now displayed by the Macedonian king, 
There were no natural barriers by which he could protect his flanks;  
 and not only was he certain to be overlapped on either wing by the vast lines of the PERSIAn army, 
but
 there was imminent risk of their circling round him and charging him in the rear, 
while he advanced against their centre, 
He formed, 
a second or reserve line, 
which was to wheel round, 
if required, 
or to detach troops to either flank;  
 as the enemy's movements might necessitate: and thus, 
with their whole army ready at any moment to
 be thrown into one vast hollow square, 
the Macedonians advanced in two
 lines against the enemy, 
ALEXANDER himself leading on the right wing,
 and the renowned phalanx forming the centre, 
while Parmenio commanded on the left.
 Such was the general nature of the disposition which ALEXANDER made of his army, 
But we have in Arrian the details of the position of each brigade and regiment;  
 and as we know that these details were taken from the journals of Macedonian generals, 
it is interesting to examine them,
 and to read the names and stations of King ALEXANDER's generals and colonels in this the greatest of his battles.
 The 8 troops of THE—ROYAL—horse-guards formed the right of ALEXANDER's line, 
Their captains were Cleitus (whose regiment was on the
 extreme right, 
the post of peculiar danger), 
Graucias, 
Ariston, 
Sopolis, 
Heracleides, 
Demetrias, 
Meleager, 
Hegelochus, 
Philotas was general of the whole division, 
Then came the shield-bearing infantry: Nicanor was their general, 
Then came the phalanx, 
in 6 brigades, 
Coenus's brigade was on the right, 
nearest to the shield-bearers;  
 next to this stood the brigade of Perdiccas, 
then Meleager's, 
then Polysperchon's;  
 and then the brigade of Amynias, 
but which was now commanded by Simmias, 
as Amynias had been sent to Macedonia to levy recruits, 
Then came the infantry of the left wing, 
under the command of Craterus, 
Next to Craterus's infantry were placed the cavalry regiments of THE—ALLIES, 
with ERIGUIUS for their general, 
The Messalian cavalry, 
commanded by PHILIPPus, 
were next, 
held the extreme left of the whole army, 
The whole left wing was entrusted to the command of Parmenio, 
who had round his person the Pharsalian troop of
 cavalry, 
which was the strongest and best amid all the Thessalian horse-regiments.
 The centre of the second line was occupied by a body of phalangite
 infantry, 
formed of companies, 
which were drafted for this purpose from each of the brigades of their phalanx, 
The officers in command of this corps were ordered to be ready to face about, 
if the enemy should succeed in gaining the rear of THE—ARMY, 
On the right of this reserve of infantry, 
in the second line, 
behind THE—ROYAL—horse-guards,
 ALEXANDER placed half the Agrian light-armed infantry under Attalus, 
 with them Brison's body of Macedonian archers, 
Cleander's regiment of foot, 
He also placed in this part of his army Menidas's squadron of cavalry, 
Aretes's and Ariston's light horse, 
Menidas was ordered to watch if the enemy's cavalry tried to turn the flank, 
if they did
 so, 
to charge them before they wheeled completely round, 
so take them in flank themselves, 
A similar force was arranged on the left of the second line for the same purpose, 
The Thracian infantry of Sitalces
 was placed there, 
Coeranus's regiment of the cavalry of the Greek allies, 
Agathon's troops of the Odrysian irregular horse.
 The extreme left of the second line in this quarter was held by Andromachus's cavalry, 
A DIVISION—OF—Thracian infantry was left in guard of the camp, 
In advance of the right wing and centre was scattered
 a number of light-armed troops, 
of javelin-men and bowmen, 
with the intention of warding off the charge of THE—ARMED chariots, 
[Kleber's arrangement of his troops at —BATTLE—OF—Heliopolis, 
where, 
with ten
 thousand Europeans, 
he had to encounter eighty thousand Asiatics in an
 open plain, 
is worth comparing with ALEXANDER's tactics at Arbela, 
See Thiers's "Histoire du KONSULat," &c, 
VOLUME—II, 
livre v]
 Conspicuous by the brilliancy of his armour, 
ALEXANDER by the chosen—BAND—of officers who were round his person, took his own station, 
ALEXANDER his custom was, in the right wing, at the HEAD—OF—his cavalry: and when
 all the arrangements for the battle were complete, and , 
ALEXANDER his generals were fully instructed how to act in each probable emergency, 
ALEXANDER began to lead his men towards the enemy.
 It was ever ALEXANDER his custom to expose his life freely in battle, and , 
ALEXANDER to emulate the personal prowess of ALEXANDER his great ancestor, Achilles, 
Perhaps in the bold enterprise of conquering PERSIA, it was politic for ALEXANDER
 to raise his army's daring to the utmost by the example of his own  heroic valour: and, 
in ALEXANDER his subsequent campaigns, the love of the excitement, 
of "the rapture of the strife," 
may have made ALEXANDER, like Murat, continue from choice a custom which he commenced from duty.
 But ALEXANDER never suffered the ardour of the soldier to make him lose the coolness of the general; and 
 at Arbela, in particular, ALEXANDER showed that ALEXANDER could act up to ALEXANDER his favourite Homeric maxim.
 Great reliance had been placed by the PERSIAn king on the effects of the scythe-bearing chariots, 
It was designed to launch these against the Macedonian phalanx, and , 
to follow them up by a heavy charge of cavalry,
 which it was hoped would find the ranks of the spearmen disordered by the rush of the chariots, and , 
easily destroy this most formidable part of ALEXANDER's force, 
In front, therefore, of the PERSIAn centre, where Darius took his station, and , 
which it was supposed the phalanx would attack, 
the ground had been carefully levelled and smoothed, 
so as to allow the chariots to charge over it with their full sweep and speed.
 As the Macedonian army approached the PERSIAn, 
ALEXANDER found that the front of his whole line barely equalled the front of the PERSIAn centre,
 so that ALEXANDER was outflanked on ALEXANDER his right by the entire left wing of the enemy, and , 
by their entire right wing on his left, 
ALEXANDER His tactics were to assail some one point of the hostile army, and , 
gain a decisive advantage; while 
ALEXANDER refused, as far as possible, the encounter along the rest of the line, 
ALEXANDER therefore inclined ALEXANDER his order of march to the right so as to enable ALEXANDER his right wing and centre 
to come into collision with the enemy on as favourable terms as possible 
though the manoeuvre might in some respects compromise ALEXANDER his left.
 The effect of this oblique movement was to bring the phalanx and 
ALEXANDER his own wing nearly beyond the limits of the ground which THE—PERSIANS had prepared for THE—OPERATIONs of the chariots; and 
Darius, fearing to lose the benefit of this arm against the most important parts of the Macedonian force, 
ordered the Scythian and Bactrian cavalry, 
who were drawn up on Darius his extreme left, 
to charge round upon ALEXANDER's right wing, and , 
check its further lateral progress, 
Against these assailants ALEXANDER sent from his 2. line Menidas's cavalry, 
As these proved too few to make head against the enemy, 
ALEXANDER ordered Ariston also from the 2. line with his light horse, and , 
Cleander with his foot, in support of Menidas, 
The Bactrians and Scythians now began to give way, but
 Darius reinforced The Bactrians and Scythians by the mass of Bactrian cavalry from his main line, and , 
an obstinate cavalry fight now took place, 
The Bactrians and Scythians were numerous, and , 
The Bactrians and Scythians were better armed than the horseman under Menidas and Ariston;  and 
the loss at 1. was heaviest on the Macedonian side, But s
till THE—EUropean cavalry stood the charge of the Asiatics, and , 
at last, 
by their superior discipline, and , 
by acting in squadrons that supported each other, 
instead of 
fighting in a confused mass like the barbarians, 
the Macedonians broke their adversaries, and
 drove them off the field, 
[The best explanation of this may be found in NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's acCOUNT—OF—the cavalry fights between THE—FRENCH and the Mamelukes:
--"Two Mamelukes were able to make head against 3 Frenchmen, 
because they were better armed, 
better mounted, and , 
better trained, 
 they had 2 pair of pistols, 
1 blunderbuss, 
1 carbine, 
1 helmet with a vizor, and , 
1 coat of mail, 
 they had several horses, and
 they had several attendants on foot, 
100 cuirassiers, however were not afraid of 100 Mamelukes, 
 300 cuirassiers could beat 1 equal number Mamelukes, and , 
1.000 cuirassiers could easily put to the rout 1.500 Mamelukes,
 so great is the influence of tactics, 
 so great is the influence of order, and , 
 so great is the influence of evolution s!  
Leclerc and Lasalle presented their men to the Mamelukes in several lines, 
When THE—ARABs were on the point of overwhelming the 1. line, 
the 2. line came to the 1. line its assistance on the right and 
the 2. line came to the 1. line its assistance on the left, 
 the Mamelukes then halted and
 the Mamelukes then wheeled, 
in order to turn the wings of this new line, 
 this moment was always seized upon to charge them, and , 
they were uniformly broken."
--MONTHOLON'S HISTORY—OF—THE CAPTIVITY OF NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, iv, 70]
now directed the scythe-armed chariots to be driven against
 ALEXANDER's horse-guards and the phalanx, 
 and these formidable vehicles
 were accordingly sent rattling across the plain, 
against the Macedonian
 line, 
When we remember the alarm which THE—WAR-chariots of the Britons
 created among CAESAR's legions, 
we shall not be prone to deride this arm
 of ancient warfare as always useless, 
The object of the chariots was
 to create unsteadiness in the ranks against which they were driven,
 and squadrons of cavalry followed close upon them, 
to profit by such
 disorder, 
But the Asiatic chariots were rendered ineffective at Arbela
 by the light-armed troops whom ALEXANDER had specially appointed for
 the service, 
wounding the horses and drivers with their missile
 weapons, 
running alongside so as to cut the traces or seize the
 reins, 
marred the intended charge, 
 and THE—FEW chariots that reached
 the phalanx passed harmlessly through the intervals which the spearmen
 opened for them, 
were easily captured in the rear.
 A mass of the Asiatic cavalry was now, 
for the second time, 
collected
 against ALEXANDER's extreme right, 
moved round it, 
with the view of
 gaining the flank of his army, 
At the critical moment, 
Aretes, 
with his
 horsemen from ALEXANDER's second line, 
dashed on the PERSIAn squadrons
 when their own flanks were exposed by this evolution, 
While ALEXANDER
 thus met and baffled all the flanking attacks of the enemy with troops
 brought up from his second line, 
he kept his own horse-guards and the
 rest of the front line of his wing fresh, 
ready to take advantage
 of the 1, 
opportunity for striking a decisive blow, 
This soon came, 
A
 large body of horse, 
who were posted on the PERSIAn left wing nearest to
 the centre, 
quitted their station, 
rode off to help their comrades
 in the cavalry fight that still was going on at the extreme right of
 ALEXANDER's wing against the detachments from his second line, 
This made
 a huge gap in the PERSIAn array, 
into this space ALEXANDER instantly
 dashed with his guard, 
 and then pressing towards his left, 
he soon
 began to make havoc in the left flank of the PERSIAn centre, 
 shield-bearing infantry now charged also among the reeling masses of the
 Asiatics, 
 and 5 of the brigades of the phalanx, 
with the irresistible
 might of their sarissas, 
bore down the Greek mercenaries of Darius,
 and dug their way through the PERSIAn centre, 
In the —EARLY, part of the
Darius had showed skill and energy, 
 and he now for some time
 encouraged his men, 
by voice and example, 
to keep firm, 
But the lances
 of ALEXANDER's cavalry, 
the pikes of the phalanx now gleamed nearer
 and nearer to him, 
His charioteer was struck down by a javelin at his
 side, 
 and at last Darius's nerve failed him, 
 and, 
descending from
 his chariot, 
he mounted on a fleet horse and galloped from the plain,
 regardless of THE—STATE—OF—the battle in other parts of the field, 
where
 matters were going on much more favourably for his cause, 
where his
 presence might have done much towards gaining a victory.
 ALEXANDER's operations with his right and centre had exposed his left
 to an immensely preponderating force of the enemy, 
Parmenio kept out of
 ACTION as long as possible, 
 but Mazaeus, 
who commanded the PERSIAn right
 wing, 
advanced against him, 
completely outflanked him, 
pressed
 him severely with reiterated charges by superior numbers, 
Seeing the
 distress of Parmenio's wing, 
Simmias, 
who commanded the sixth brigade of
 the phalanx, 
which was next to the left wing, 
did not advance with the
 other brigades in the great charge upon the PERSIAn centre, 
but kept
 back to cover Parmenio's troops on their right flank, 
 as otherwise they
 would have been completely surrounded and cut off from the rest of the
 Macedonian army, 
By so doing, 
Simmias had unavoidably opened a gap in
 the Macedonian left centre, 
 and a large column of Indian and PERSIAn
 horse, 
from the PERSIAn right centre, 
had galloped forward through this
 interval, 
right through the troops of the Macedonian second line.
 Instead of then wheeling round upon Sarmenio, 
or upon the rear of
 ALEXANDER's conquering wing, 
the Indian and PERSIAn cavalry rode
 straight on to the Macedonian camp, 
overpowered the Thracians who were
 left in charge of it, 
began to plunder, 
This was stopped by the
 phalangite troops of the second line, 
after the enemy's horsemen
 had rushed by them, 
faced about, 
countermarched upon the camp, 
killed
 many of the Indians and PERSIAns in the act of plundering, 
forced
 the rest to ride off AGAIN, 
Just at this crisis, 
ALEXANDER had been
 recalled from his pursuit of Darius, 
by tidings of the distress of
 Parmenio, 
of his inability to bear up any longer against the hot
 attacks of Mazaeus, 
Taking his horse-guards with him, 
ALEXANDER rode
 towards the part of the field where his left wing was fighting, 
 but on
 his way thither he encountered the PERSIAn and Indian cavalry, 
on their
 return from his camp.
 These men now saw that their only chance of safety was to cut their
 way through, 
 and in one huge column they charged desperately upon the
 Macedonians, 
There was here a close hand-to-hand fight, 
which lasted
 some time, 
sixty of THE—ROYAL—horse-guards fell, 
3 generals,
 who fought close to ALEXANDER's side, 
were wounded, 
At length the
 Macedonian, 
discipline and valour AGAIN prevailed, 
a large number of
 the PERSIAn and Indian horsemen were cut down, 
 some few only succeeded
 in breaking through and riding away, 
Relieved of these obstinate
 enemies, 
ALEXANDER AGAIN formed his horse-guards, 
led them towards
 but by this time that general also was victorious, 
Probably
 THE—NEWS of Darius's flight had reached Mazaeus, 
had damped the
 ardour of the PERSIAn right wing, 
 while the tidings of their comrades'
 success must have proportionally encouraged the Macedonian forces under
His Thessalian cavalry particularly distinguished themselves
 by their gallantry and persevering good conduct, 
 and by the time that
 ALEXANDER had ridden up to Parmenio, 
the whole PERSIAn army was in full
 flight from the field.
 It was of the deepest importance to ALEXANDER to secure the person of
he now urged on the pursuit, 
The river Lycus was between the
 field of battle and THE—CITY—OF—Arbela, 
whither the fugitives directed
 their course, 
the —PASSAGE of this river was even more destructive to
 THE—PERSIANS than the swords and spears of the Macedonians had been
 in the engagement, 
[I purposely omit any statement of the loss in the
There is a palpable error of the transcribers in the numbers
 which we find in our present manuscripts of Arrian, 
 and Curtius is of no
 authority] 
The narrow bridge was soon choked up by the flying
 thousands who rushed towards it, 
vast numbers of THE—PERSIANS threw themselves, or were hurried by others, into the rapid stream, and perished in its waters, 
Darius had crossed it, 
and , 
Darius had ridden on through Arbela without halting, 
—ON—THE, NEXT DAY, ALEXANDER reached that CITY—OF—Arbela  
ON THE NEXT DAY, ALEXANDER made himself master of all Darius's treasure and stores, but 
the PERSIAn king unfortunately for himself, 
had fled too fast for his conqueror:
 he had only escaped to perish by the treachery of his Bactrian satrap Bessus.
 A FEW DAYS AFTER the battle ALEXANDER entered BABYLON, 
"the oldest
 seat of earthly empire" then in existence, 
as its acknowledged lord and
 master, 
There were yet some campaigns of his brief and bright career
 to be accomplished, 
CENTRAL—ASIA was yet to witness the march of his
 phalanx, 
He was yet to effect that conquest of AFGHANISTAN in which
 ENGLAND since has failed, 
His generalship, 
as well as his valour, 
were
 yet to be signalised on THE—BANKs of the Hydaspes, 
the field of
 Chillianwallah, 
 and he was yet to precede THE—QUEEN—OF—ENGLAND in
 annexing the Punjaub to the dominions of an European sovereign, 
But the
 crisis of his career was reached, 
 the great object of his mission was
 accomplished, 
 and THE—ANCIENT PERSIAn empire, 
which once menaced all
 the nations of the earth with subjection, 
was irreparably crushed, 
 ALEXANDER had won his crowning VICTORY—AT—Arbela.
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN —BATTLE—OF—ARBELA AND —BATTLE—OF—THE METAURUS.
_0330, 
The Lacedaemonians endeavour to create a RISING—IN—Greece against the Macedonian power;  
 they are defeated by Antipater, 
ALEXANDER's viceroy;  
 and their king, 
Agis, 
falls in the battle.
 330 to 327, 
ALEXANDER's campaigns in Upper Asia, 
"Having conquered
ALEXANDER pursued his way, 
encountering difficulties which would
 have appalled almost any other general, 
through Bactriana, 
taking Bactra, or Zariaspa, (now Balkh), THE—CHIEF CITY—OF—that province, 
 he spent the winter, 
Crossing the Oxus, 
he advanced in the following
 spring to Marakanda (Samarcand) to replace the loss of horses which he
 had sustained in crossing the Caucasus, 
to obtain supplies from the rich
 valley of Sogd (the Mahometan Paradise of Mader-al-Nahr), 
to enforce
 THE—SUBMISSION—OF—Transoxiana, 
The northern —LIMIT of his march is
 probably represented by the modern Uskand, 
or Aderkand, 
a village on the
 Iaxartes, 
near the end of the Ferganah district, 
In Margiana he FOUNDED
 another Alexandria, 
Returning from the north, 
he led on his army in the
 hope of conquering India, 
till at length, 
marching in a line apparently
 nearly parallel with the Kabul river, 
he arrived at the celebrated rock
 Aornos, 
the position of which must have been on the right bank of the
 Indus, 
at some distance from Attock;  
 and it may perhaps be represented by the modern Akora"--(VAUX.)
_03270000            
_03260000            ALEXANDER marches through, 
AFGHANISTAN to the Punjaub, 
He
 defeats Porus, 
His troops refuse to march towards the Ganges, 
he
 commences the descent of the Indus, 
On his march he attacks and subdues
 several Indian tribes, 
among others the Malli, 
 —IN—THE—storming of whose
 capital (Mooltan), 
he is severely wounded, 
He directs his admiral,
 Nearchus, 
to sail round from the Indus to the PERSIAn Gulf;  
 and leads THE—ARMY back across Scinde and Beloochistan.
_03240000            ALEXANDER returns to BABYLON, 
"In the tenth year after he had
 crossed the Hellespont, 
ALEXANDER, 
having won his vast dominion, 
entered
 BABYLON, 
 and resting from his career in that oldest seat of earthly
 empire, 
he steadily surveyed the mass of various nations which owned his
 sovereignty, 
revolved in his mind the great work of breathing into
 this huge but inert body the living spirit of Greek civilization, 
In the
 bloom of youthful manhood, 
at THE—AGE of thirty-two, 
he paused from
 the fiery speed of his earlier course, 
 and for the 1, 
time gave the
 nations an opportunity of offering their homage before his throne, 
They
 came from all the extremities of the earth to propitiate his anger, 
to
 celebrate his greatness, 
or to solicit his protection..., 
History may
 allow us to think that ALEXANDER and a ROMAn ambassador did meet at
 that the greatest man of THE—ANCIENT world saw and spoke with
 a citizen of that great nation, 
which was destined to succeed him in
 his appointed work, 
to found a wider and still more enduring empire.
 They met, 
too, 
in BABYLON, 
almost beneath the shadow of the temple of
 Bel, 
perhaps the earliest monument ever raised by human pride and power,
 in a city stricken, 
as it were, 
by the word of God's heaviest
 judgment, 
as the symbol of greatness apart from and opposed to goodness."--(ARNOLD.)
_03230613            † ALEXANDER—THE—GREAT, BABYLON  
On his death being known at Greece, 
 Athenians, 
others of the southern states, 
take up arms to shake off
 the domination of Macedon, 
They are at 1, 
successful;  
 but the return of some of ALEXANDER's veterans from Asia enables Antipater to prevail over them.
_03170000_02890000   Agathocles is tyrant of Syracuse;  
 and carries on repeated wars with THE—CARTHAGINIANS;  
 in the course of which (
_03110000            he invades Africa, 
 reduces THE—CARTHAGINIANS to great distress.
_03060000            After a long series of wars with each other, 
after all the
 heirs of ALEXANDER had been murdered, 
his principal surviving generals
 assume THE—TITLE—OF—king, 
each over the provinces which he has occupied.
 The 4 chief among them were Antigonus, 
Ptolemy, 
Lysimachus, 
 SELEUCUS, 
Antipater was now dead, 
but his son Cassander succeeded to his
 power in Macedonia and Greece.
_03010000            SELEUCUS and Lysimachus defeat Antigonus at Ipsus, 
_03010000            Antigonus is killed in the battle.
_02800000            SELEUCUS, 
the last of ALEXANDER's captains, 
is assassinated, 
 Of all ALEXANDER's successors, 
SELEUCUS had formed the most powerful empire.
 He had acquired all the provinces between Phrygia and the Indus, 
 extended his dominion in India beyond the limits reached by ALEXANDER.
 SELEUCUS had some sparks of his great master's genius in promoting
 civilization and commerce, 
as well as in gaining victories, 
Under his
 successors, 
the Seleucidae, 
this vast empire rapidly diminished;  
 Bactria became independent, 
_01250000            BACTRIA became a separate dynasty of Greek kings ruled there ,
 when it was overthrown by the Scythian tribes, 
Parthia
 threw off its allegiance to the Seleucidae in 250 B.C., 
the powerful
 Parthian kingdom, 
which afterwards proved so formidable a foe to ROMe,
 absorbed nearly all the provinces west of THE—EUphrates, 
that had obeyed
 the 1, 
SELEUCUS, 
Before —BATTLE—OF—Ipsus, 
Mithridates, 
a PERSIAn
 prince of the blood-royal of the Achaemenidae, 
had escaped to Pontus,
 and FOUNDED there THE—KINGDOM—OF— that name.
 Besides THE—KINGDOM—OF— SELEUCUS, 
which, 
when limited to SYRIA,
 PALESTINE, 
parts of Asia Minor, 
long survived, 
 the most important
 kingdom formed by a general of ALEXANDER was that of the Ptolemies in
 Egypt, 
The throne of Macedonia was long and obstinately contended for by
 Cassander, 
Polysperchon, 
Pyrrhus, 
Antigonus, 
others; but at last was secured by THE—DYNASTY of Antigonus Gonatas, 
The old
 republics of southern Greece suffered severely
             —DURING—the se tumults,
 and the only Greek states that showed any strength and spirit were
 the cities of the Achaean league, 
THE—AETOLIANs, 
the islanders of
 RHODES.
_02900000            ROMe had now thoroughly subdued the Samnites and the Etruscans,
 and had gained numerous victories over the Cisalpine GAULS, 
Wishing to
 confirm her dominion in Lower ITALY, 
she became entangled in a war with
 Pyrrhus, 
fourth KING—OF—Epirus, 
who was called over by the Tarentines
 to aid them, 
Pyrrhus was at 1, 
victorious, 
but —J—IM, 275
 was defeated by THE—ROMAN—legions in a pitched battle, 
He returned to
remarking, 
"ROMe becomes mistress of all ITALY from the Rubicon
 to the Straits of MESSINA."
_02640000            The 1, 
PUNIC—WAR begins, 
Its primary cause was the desire of
 both THE—ROMANs and THE—CARTHAGINIANS to possess themselves of Sicily.
 THE—ROMANs form a fleet, 
successfully compete with the marine of
 CARTHAGE, 
[There is at this present moment 
[written In ;;06;;, 
1851]
 in the Great Exhibition at Hyde Park a model of a piratical galley of
 Labuan, 
part of the mast of which can be let down on an enemy, 
 form a bridge for boarders, 
It is worth while to compare this with the
 account in POLYBIUS of the boarding bridges which THE—ROMAN—admiral
 Dullius, 
affixed to the masts of his galleys and by means of which he
 won his great victory over the Carthaginian fleet]
             —DURING—the latter
 half of THE—WAR, 
THE—MILITARY genius of HAMILCAR—BARCA sustains the
 Carthaginian cause in Sicily, 
At the end of twenty-four years, 
THE—CARTHAGINIANS sue for peace, 
though their aggregate loss in ships and
 men had been less than that sustained by THE—ROMANs since the beginning
 of THE—WAR, 
Sicily becomes a ROMAn province.
_02400000_02180000   The Carthaginian mercenaries who had been brought back from Sicily to Africa,
 from Sicily to Africa, 
mutiny against CARTHAGE, 
nearly succeed in
 destroying her, 
After a sanguinary and desperate struggle, 
Hamilcar
 Barca crushes them, 
             —DURING this season of weakness to CARTHAGE, 
ROMe
 takes from her the ISLAND of Sardinia, 
HAMILCAR—BARCA forms the project
 of obtaining compensation by conquests in SPAIN, 
thus enabling
 CARTHAGE to renew the struggle with ROMe, 
He takes HANNIBAL (then a
 child) to SPAIN with him, 
He and, 
after his death, 
his brother, 
win
 great part of southern SPAIN to the Carthaginian interest, 
HANNIBAL
 obtains the command of the Carthaginian armies in SPAIN, 
221 B.C., 
being
 then twenty-6—YEARS—OLD, 
He attacks Saguntum, 
a city on the EBRO in
 alliance with ROMe, 
which is the immediate pretext for the second Punic
 war.
             —DURING this interval ROMe had to sustain a storm from the north, 
 Cisalpine GAULS, 
in 226, 
formed an alliance with one of the fiercest
 tribes of their brethren north of the Alps, 
began a furioUS—WAR
 against THE—ROMAN—S, 
which lasted 6—YEARS, 
THE—ROMANs gave them several
 severe defeats, 
took from them part of their territories near the
 Po, 
It was on this occasion that THE—ROMAN—COLONIES of Cremona and
 Placentia were FOUNDED, 
the latter of which did such essential service
 to ROMe —IN—THE—second PUNIC—WAR, 
by the resistance which it made to the
 army of HASDRUBAL, 
A muster-roll was made in this WAR—OF—the effective
 MILITARY force of THE—ROMANs themselves, 
of those Italian states
 that were subject to them, 
The return showed a force of seven hundred
 thousand foot, 
seventy thousand horse, 
POLYBIUS mentions this muster.
_02280000            HANNIBAL crosses the Alps and invades ITALY.
 CHAPTER—IV
_02070000            —BATTLE—OF—THE—METAURUS,
 Quid debeas, 
O ROMA, 
Neronibus,
 Testis Metaurum flumen, 
et HASDRUBAL
 Devictus, 
et pulcher fugatis
 Ille dies Latio tenebris,
 Qui primus alma risit adorea; Dirus per urbes Afer ut Italas,
 Ceu flamma per taedas, 
vel Eurus
 Per Siculas equitavit undas.--HORATIUS—iv—Od, 
4.
 ".., 
The KONSUL—NERO, 
who made the unequalled march which
 deceived HANNIBAL, 
defeated HASDRUBAL, 
thereby accomplishing
 an achievement almost unrivalled in MILITARY annals, 
 The 1.
 intelligence of his return, 
to HANNIBAL, 
was the sight of
 HASDRUBAL's head thrown into his camp, 
 When HANNIBAL saw this,
 he exclaimed with a sigh, 
that 'ROMe would now be the mistress of
 THE—WORLD.' To this VICTORY—OF—Nero's it might be owing that his
 imperial namesake reigned at all, 
 But the infamy of the one has
 eclipsed the glory of the other, 
 When the name of NERO is heard,
 who thinks of the KONSUL!  
 But such are human things."--BYRON.
 About midway between Rimini and ANCONA a little river falls into the
 Adriatic, 
after traversing one of those districts of ITALY, 
in which
 a vain attempt has lately been made to revive, 
after long centuries of
 servitude and shame, 
the spirit of Italian nationality, 
the energy
 of free institutions, 
That stream is still called the Metauro, 
 and
 wakens by its name recollections of the resolute daring of ancient
 ROMe, 
of the slaughter that stained its current two thousand and
 sixty-3—YEARS—AGO, 
when the combined KONSULar armies of Livius
 and NERO encountered and crushed near its banks the varied hosts which
 HANNIBAL's brother was leading from THE—PYRENEES, 
the RHONE, 
the Alps,
 and the Po, 
to aid the great Carthaginian in his stern struggle to
 annihilate the growing might of THE—ROMAN—Republic, 
make the Punic
 power supreme over all the nations of THE—WORLD.
 THE—ROMAN—historian, 
who termed that struggle the most memorable of all
 wars that ever were carried on, 
[Livy——LIBER—XXI—SECTION—1] 
wrote-in no
 spirit of exaggeration, 
For it is not in ancient but in modern history,
 that parallels for its incidents and its heroes are to be found, 
 similitude between the contest which ROMe maintained against HANNIBAL,
 and that which ENGLAND was for many years engaged in against NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE,
 has not passed unobserved by recent historians, 
"Twice," says ARNOLD,
[VOLUME—III—PAGE—62, 
See also Alison--PASSIM] 
"has there been witnessed
 the struggle of THE—HIGHest individual genius against the resources and
 institutions of a great nation, 
 and in both cases the nation has been
 victorious, 
For seventeen years HANNIBAL strove against ROMe, 
 for
 sixteen years NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE strove against ENGLAND, 
 the efforts of
ended in Zama, 
those of the second in Waterloo." One point,
 however, 
of the similitude between the two wars has scarcely been
 adequately dwelt on, 
That is, 
the remarkable parallel between THE—ROMAN
 general who finally defeated the great Carthaginian, 
THE—ENGLISH
 general who gave the last deadly overthrow to THE—FRENCH—EMPEROR, 
SCIPIO
 and WELLINGTON both held for many years commands of high importance,
 but distant from the main theatres of warfare, 
The same country was the
 scene of the principal MILITARY career of each, 
It was in SPAIN that
 SCIPIO, 
like WELLINGTON, 
successively encountered and overthrew nearly
 all the subordinate generals of the enemy, 
before being opposed to
 THE—CHIEF champion and conqueror himself, 
Both SCIPIO and WELLINGTON
 restored their countrymen's confidence in arms, 
when shaken by a series
 of reverses, 
And each of them closed a long and periloUS—WAR by a
 complete and overwhelming DEFEAT—OF—the chosen leader and the chosen
 veterans of the foe.
 Nor is the parallel between them limited to their MILITARY characters
 and exploits, 
SCIPIO, 
became an important leader of
 the aristocratic party among his countrymen, 
was exposed to
 the unmeasured invectives of the violent section of his political
 antagonists, 
When, 
early in the last reign, 
an infuriated mob assaulted
 THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON —IN—THE—streets of THE—ENGLISH capital on the
 ANNIVERSARY—OF—Waterloo, 
ENGLAND was even more disgraced by that
 outrage, 
than ROMe was by the factious accusations which demagogues
 brought against SCIPIO, 
but which he proudly repelled —ON—THE—DAY of
 trial, 
by reminding the assembled people that it was the anniversary
 of —BATTLE—OF—Zama, 
Happily, 
a wiser and a better spirit has now for
 years pervaded all classes of our community, 
 and we shall be spared
 the ignominy of having worked out to the end the parallel of national
 iugratitude, 
SCIPIO died a voluntary exile from the malevolent
 turbulence of ROMe, 
ENGLISH—MEN of all ranks and politics have now long
 united in affectionate admiration of our modern SCIPIO: and even
 those who have most widely differed from THE—DUKE on legislative or
 administrative questions, 
forget what they deem the political errors of
 that time-honoured head, 
while they gratefully call to mind the laurels
 that have wreathed it.
 SCIPIO at Zama trampled in the dust the power of CARTHAGE, 
 but that
 power had been ALREADY irreparably shattered in another field, 
 neither SCIPIO nor HANNIBAL commanded, 
When the Metaurus witnessed the
 defeat and death of HASDRUBAL, 
it witnessed the ruin of the scheme
 by which alone CARTHAGE could hope to organise decisive success,--the
 scheme of enveloping ROMe at once from the north and the south of ITALY
 by chosen armies, 
led by two sons of Hamilcar, 
[See ARNOLD, 
VOLUME—III—PAGE—387] 
That battle was the determining crisis of the contest, 
not merely
 between ROMe and CARTHAGE, 
but between the two great families of the
which then made ITALY the arena of their oft-renewed contest for
 pre-eminence.
 THE—FRENCH historian Michelet whose "Histoire ROMAine" would have been
 invaluable, 
if the general industry and accuracy of the writer had in
 any degree equalled his originality and brilliancy, 
eloquently remarks:
 "It is not without reason that so universal and vivid a remembrance of
 the PUNIC—WARs has dwelt in the memories of men, 
They formed no mere
 struggle to determine the lot of two cities or two empires, 
 but it was a
 strife on THE—EVENT of which depended the fate of two races of mankind,
 whether the dominion of THE—WORLD should belong to the Indo-Germanic or
 to the Semitic family of nations, 
Bear in mind, 
that the 1, 
of these
 comprises, 
besides the Indians and THE—PERSIANS, 
THE—GREEKS, 
THE—ROMAN—S,
 and THE—GERMANS, 
In the other are ranked THE—JEWS and THE—ARABs, 
 Phoenicians and THE—CARTHAGINIANS, 
On the one side is the genius
 of heroism, 
of art, 
legislation: on the other is the spirit of
 industry, 
of commerce, 
of navigation, 
The two opposite races have
 everywhere come into contact, 
everywhere into hostility, 
 primitive HISTORY—OF—PERSIA and Chaldea, 
the heroes are perpetually
 engaged in combat with their industrious and perfidious, 
neighbours.
 The struggle is renewed between the Phoenicians and THE—GREEKS on every
 coast of the Mediterranean, 
The Greek supplants the Phoenician in all
 his factories, 
all his colonies in THE—EAST: soon will THE—ROMAN—come,
 and do likewise IN—THE—WEST, 
ALEXANDER did far more against Tyre than
 Salmanasar or Nabuchodonosor had done, 
Not content with crushing her, 
 took care that she never should revive: for he FOUNDED Alexandria as
 her substitute, 
changed for ever the track of commerce of the
There remained CARTHAGE--the great CARTHAGE, 
her mighty
 empire,--mighty in a far different degree than PhoeniCIA—had been.
 ROMe annihilated it, 
Then occurred that which has no parallel in
 history,--an entire civilisation perished at one blow--vanished, 
like a
 falling star, 
The 'Periplus' of Hanno, 
a few coins, 
a score of lines in
 Plautus, 
lo, 
all that remains of the Carthaginian world!
 "Many generations must needs pass away before the struggle between the
 two races could be renewed, 
 and THE—ARABs, 
that formidable rear-guard of
 the Semitic world, 
dashed forth from their deserts, 
The KONFLIKT between
 the two races then became the KONFLIKT of two religions, 
Fortunate was
 it that those daring Saracenic cavaliers encountered in THE—EAST the
 impregnable walls of Constantinople, 
IN—THE—WEST the chivalrous valour
 of CHARLES Martel and the sword of the Cid, 
The crusades were the
 natural reprisals for THE—ARAB —INVASÃONs, 
form the last epoch of
 that great struggle between the two principal families of the human
 race."
 It is difficult amid the glimmering light supplied by the allusions
 of the classical writers to gain a full idea of the character and
 institutions of ROMe's great rival, 
But we can perceive how inferior
 CARTHAGE was to her competitor in MILITARY resources, 
 and how far
 less fitted than ROMe she was to become the founder of centralized and
 centralizing dominion, 
that should endure —FOR—CENTURIES, 
fuse into
 imperial unity the narrow nationalities of THE—ANCIENT races that dwelt
 around and near the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.
 CARTHAGE was originally neither the most ancient nor the most powerful
 of the numerous colonies which the Phoenicians planted on the coast of
 Northern Africa, 
But her advantageous position, 
the excellence of her
 constitution (of which, 
though ill-informed as to its details, 
we know
 that it commanded the admiration of Aristotle), 
the commercial and
 political energy of her citizens, 
gave her the ascendancy over Hippo,
 Utica, 
Leptis, 
her other sister Phoenician cities in those regions; and she finally seduced them to a condition of dependency, 
similar to
 that which the subject allies of Athens occupied relatively to that once
 imperial city, 
When Tyre and Sidon and the other cities of Phoenicia
 itself sank from independent republics into mere vassal states of the
 great Asiatic monarchies and obeyed by turns a BABYLONian, 
a PERSIAn,
 and a Macedonian master, 
their power and their traffic rapidly declined; and CARTHAGE succeeded to the important maritime and commercial
 character which they had previously maintained, 
THE—CARTHAGINIANS did
 not seek to compete with THE—GREEKS on the north-eastern shores of the
 Mediterranean, 
or in the 3 inland seas which are connected with
 it, 
 but they maintained an active intercourse with the Phoenicians,
 and through them with lower and CENTRAL—ASIA, 
 and they, 
they
 alone, 
after THE—DECLINE and FALL—OF—Tyre, 
navigated the waters of the
 Atlantic, 
They had THE—MONOPOLY of all THE—COMMERCE—OF—THE—WORLD that
 was carried on beyond THE—STRAITS—OF—GIBRALTAR, 
We have yet extant (in
 a Greek translation) the narrative of the voyage of Hanno, 
one of their
 admirals, 
along THE—WESTern coast of Africa as far as Sierra Leone, 
And
 in the Latin poem of FESTUS—AVIENUS, 
frequent references are made to the records of the voyages of another celebrated Carthaginian admiral, Himilco, 
who had explored the north-western coast of Europe, 
Our own islands are mentioned by Himilco as the lands of the Hiberni and the Albioni, 
It is indeed certain that THE—CARTHAGINIANS frequented the Cornish coast (as the Phoenicians had done before them) 
for the purpose of procuring tin, and 
there is every reason to believe that 
they sailed as far as the coasts of the Baltic for amber, 
When it is remembered that the mariner's compass was unknown in those ages, 
the boldness and skill of the seamen of CARTHAGE, and, 
the enterprise of her merchants, 
may be paralleled with any achievements that the HISTORY—OF—modern navigation and commerce can supply.
THE—CARTHAGINIANS, in their Atlantic voyages along the African shores, followed the double object of trade and colonization, 
The numerous settlements that were planted by THE—CARTHAGINIANS along the coast from MOROcco to Senegal, 
provided for THE—NEEDY MEMBERS—OF—the constantly-increasing population of a great commercial capital, and also 
strengthened the influence which CARTHAGE exercised among the tribes of the African coast, 
Besides THE—CARTHAGINIANS fleets, 
THE—CARTHAGINIANS caravans gave THE—CARTHAGINIANS a large and lucrative trade with the native Africans, 
 nor must we —LIMIT our belief of the extent of THE—CARTHAGINIANS trade with the tribes of Central and Western Africa, 
by the narrowness of the commercial intercourse which civilized nations of modern times have been able to create in those regions.
THE—CARTHAGINIANS, Although essentially a mercantile and seafaring people, 
THE—CARTHAGINIANS by no means neglected agriculture, 
the whole of THE—CARTHAGINIANS territory was cultivated like a garden, 
The fertility of the soil repaid the skill and toil bestowed on it, and 
every invader, from Agathocles to SCIPIO—AEMILIANUS, 
was struck with admiration at the rich pasture-lands carefully irrigated, 
the abundant harvests,
 the luxuriant vineyards, 
the plantations of fig and olive-trees, 
the thriving villages, 
the populous towns, and, 
the splendid villas of the wealthy CARTHAGINIANS, 
through which his march lay, as long as he was on Carthaginian ground.
 THE—CARTHAGINIANS abandoned the Aegean and the Pontus to THE—GREEKS,
 but 
 THE—CARTHAGINIANS were by no means disposed to relinquish to those rivals the commerce and the dominion of the coasts of the Mediterranean westward of ITALY, 
—FOR—CENTURIES THE—CARTHAGINIANS strove to make themselves masters of the islands that lie between ITALY and SPAIN, 
THE—CARTHAGINIANS acquired the Balearic islands, where the principal harbour, Port Mahon, 
still bears the name of the Carthaginian admiral, 
THE—CARTHAGINIANS succeeded in reducing the greater part of Sardinia, but 
Sicily could never be brought into their power, 
THE—CARTHAGINIANS repeatedly invaded that ISLAND, 
nearly overran it, 
 the resistance which was opposed to them by the Syracusans under Gelon,
 Dionysius, 
Timoleon, 
Agathocles, 
preserved the ISLAND from becoming
 Punic, 
though many of its cities remained under the Carthaginian rule,
 until ROMe finally settled the question to whom Sicily was to belong, 
 conquering it for herself.
 With so many elements of success, 
with almost unbounded wealth with
 commercial and maritime activity, 
with a fertile territory, 
with a
 capital CITY—OF—almost impregnable strength, 
with a constitution
 that ensured —FOR—CENTURIES the blessings of, 
social order, 
with an
 aristocracy singularly fertile in men of THE—HIGHest genius, 
CARTHAGE
 yet failed signally and calamitously in her contest for power with ROMe.
 One of the immediate causes of this may seem to have been the want, 
of
 firmness among her citizens, 
which made them terminate the 1, 
Punic
 war by begging peace, 
sooner than endure any longer the hardships and
 burdens caused by a state of warfare, 
although their antagonists had
 suffered far more severely than themselves, 
Another cause was the spirit
 of faction among their leading men, 
which prevented HANNIBAL in the
 second war from being properly reinforced and supported, 
But there were
 also more general causes why CARTHAGE proved inferior to ROMe, 
These
 were her position relatively to the mass of THE—INHABITANTS—OF—the
 country which she ruled, 
her habit of trusting to mercenary armies
 in her wars.
 Our clearest information as to the different races of men in and about
 CARTHAGE is derived from Diodorus Siculus, 
[VOLUME—II—PAGE—447, Wesseling's ed] 
That historian enumerates 4 different races: 1., 
he mentions the Phoenicians who dwelt in CARTHAGE: next, 
he speaks of the Liby-Phoenicians, 
 these, 
he tells us, 
dwelt in many of the maritime
 cities, 
were connected by intermarriages with the Phoenicians, 
which
 was the cause of their compound name: thirdly, 
he mentions the Libyans,
 the bulk and the most ancient part of the population, 
hating THE—CARTHAGINIANS intensely, 
ON—ACCOUNT—OF—the oppressiveness of their
 domination: lastly, 
he names the Numidians, 
the nomad tribes of the
 frontier.
 It is evident, 
from this description, 
that the native Libyans were a
 subject class, 
without franchise or political rights, 
accordingly,
 we find no instance specified —IN—HISTORY—OF—a Libyan holding political
 office or MILITARY command, 
The half-castes, 
the Liby-Phoenicians, 
seem
 to have been sometimes sent out as colonists, 
[See the "Periplus"
 of Hanno] 
but it may be inferred, 
from what Diodorus says of their
 residence, 
that they had not the right of the citizenship of CARTHAGE:
 and only a solitary case occurs of one of this race being entrusted with
not emanating from the home government, 
This
 is the instance of the officer sent by HANNIBAL to Sicily, 
after the
 FALL—OF—Syracuse, 
 whom POLYBIUS—LIBER—ix, 
22] 
calls Myttinus the
 Libyan, 
but whom, 
from the fuller account in Livy, 
we find to have been
 a Liby-Phoenician 
[—LIBER—xxv, 
40] 
and it is expressly mentioned what
 indignation was felt by the Carthaginian commanders in the ISLAND that
 this half-caste should control their operations.
 With respect to the composition of their armies, 
it is observable that,
 though thirsting for extended empire, 
though some of the leading men
 became generals of THE—HIGHest order, 
THE—CARTHAGINIANS, 
as a people,
 were anything but personally warlike, 
As long as they could hire
 mercenaries to fight for them, 
they had little appetite for the irksome
 training, 
they grudged the loss of valuable time, 
which military
 service would have entailed on themselves.
 As Michelet remarks, 
"The life of an industrious merchant, 
of a
 Carthaginian, 
was too precious to be risked, 
as long as it was possible
 to substitute advantageously for it that of a barbarian from SPAIN or
 Gaul, 
CARTHAGE knew, 
could tell to a drachma, 
what the life of a
 man of each nation came to, 
A Greek was worth more than a Campanian, 
 Campanian worth more than a Gaul or a Spaniard, 
When once this tariff
 of blood was correctly made out, 
CARTHAGE began a war as a mercantile
 speculation, 
She tried to make conquests in the hope of getting new
 mines to work, 
or to open fresh markets for her exports, 
In one venture
 she could afford to spend fifty thousand mercenaries, 
in another, 
rather
 more, 
If the returns were good, 
there was no regret felt for the capital
 that had been lavished in the investment, 
 more money got more men, 
 all went on well." 
[Histoire ROMAine, 
VOLUME—II—PAGE—40]
 Armies composed of foreign mercenaries have, 
in all ages, 
been as
 formidable to their employers as to the enemy against whom they were
 directed, 
We know of one occasion (between the 1, 
second Punic
 wars) when CARTHAGE was brought to the very brink of destruction by a
 revolt of her foreign troops, 
Other mutinies of the same kind must from
 time to time have occurred, 
Probably one of these was the cause of the
 comparative weakness of CARTHAGE AT—THE—TIME of the Athenian expedition
 against Syracuse, 
 so different from the energy with which she attacked
 Gelon 50—YEARS earlier, 
Dionysius 50—YEARS later, 
 even when we consider her armies with reference only to their efficiency
 in warfare, 
we perceive at once the inferiority of such bands of
 condottieri, 
brought together without any common bond of origin,
 tactics, 
or cause, 
to the legions of ROMe, 
which AT—THE—TIME of the
 PUNIC—WARs were raised from the very flower of a hardy agricultural
 population trained —IN—THE—strictest discipline, 
habituated to victory,
 and animated by the most resolute patriotism, 
And this shows also
 the transcendency of THE—GENIUS—OF—HANNIBAL, 
which could form such
 discordant materials into a compact organized force, 
inspire them
 with the spirit of patient discipline and loyalty to their chief, 
 so
 that they were true to him in his adverse as well as in his prosperous
 fortunes, 
 and —THROUGHOUT the chequered series of his campaigns no panic
 rout ever disgraced a division under his command, 
 no mutiny, 
or even
 attempt at mutiny, 
was ever known in his camp, 
finally, 
after
 fifteen years of Italian warfare, 
his men followed their old leader to
 Zama, 
"with no fear and little hope, 
" 
["We advanced to Waterloo as the
 Greeks did to THERMOPYLAE, 
 all of us without fear and most of us without
 hope."--SPEECH OF GENERAL FOY] 
and there, 
on that disastrous field,
 stood firm around him, 
his Old Guard, 
till SCIPIO's Numidian allies came
 up on their flank, 
 when at last, 
surrounded and overpowered, 
the veteran
 battalions sealed their devotion to their general with their blood.
 "But if HANNIBAL's genius may be likened to the Homeric god, 
in his
 hatred to the Trojans, 
rises from the deep to rally the fainting Greeks,
 and to lead them against the enemy, 
so the calm courage with which
 Hector met his more than human adversary in his country's cause, 
is
 no unworthy image of the unyielding magnanimity displayed by the
 aristocracy of ROMe, 
As HANNIBAL utterly eclipses CARTHAGE, 
so, 
on the
 contrary, 
Fabius, 
MARCELLUS, 
CLAUDIUS NERO, 
even SCIPIO himself, 
are as
 nothing when compared to the spirit, 
wisdom, 
power of ROMe, 
 senate, 
which voted its thanks to its political enemy, 
Varro, 
after his
 disastrous defeat, 
'because he had not despaired of the commonwealth,'
 and which disdained either to solicit, 
or to reprove, 
or to threaten,
 or in any way to notice the twelve colonies which had refused their
 customary supplies of men for THE—ARMY, 
is far more to be honoured than
 the conqueror of Zama, 
This we should the more carefully bear in mind
 because our tendency is to admire individual greatness far more than
 national, 
as no single ROMAn will bear comparison to HANNIBAL, 
we
 are apt to murmur at THE—EVENT of the contest, 
to think that the
 victory was awarded to the least worthy of the combatants, 
On the
never was the wisdom of God's Providence more manifest than in
 the issue of the struggle between ROMe and CARTHAGE, 
It was clearly
 for the good of man kind that HANNIBAL should be conquered: his triumph
 would have stopped the progress of THE—WORLD, 
For great men can only
 act permanently by forming great nations, 
 and no one man, 
even though
 it were HANNIBAL himself, 
can in one generation effect such a work, 
But
 where the nation has been merely enkindled for a while by a great man's
 spirit, 
the light passes away with him who communicated it, 
 and the
 nation, 
when he is gone, 
is like a dead body, 
to which magic power had,
 for a moment, 
given unnatural life: when the charm has ceased, 
the body
 is cold and stiff as before, 
He who grieves over —BATTLE—OF—Zama
 should carry on his thoughts to a period thirty years later, 
 HANNIBAL must, 
in the course of nature, 
have been dead, 
consider how
 the isolated Phoenician CITY—OF—CARTHAGE was fitted to receive and to
 consolidate the civilization of Greece, 
or by its laws and institutions
 to bind together barbarians of every race and language into an organized
prepare them for becoming, 
when that empire was dissolved,
 the free MEMBERS—OF—the commonwealth of CHRISTIAN Europe." 
[ARNOLD, 
VOLUME—III—PAGE—61, 
The above is one of the numerous bursts of eloquence that
 adorn ARNOLD's third volume, 
cause such deep regret that that volume
 should have been the last, 
its great and good author have been cut
 off with his work thus incomplete]
_02070000            IN —THE—SPRING—OF It was that HASDRUBAL, 
HASDRUBAL, 
after skilfully disentangling himself from THE—ROMAN—forces in SPAIN, 
HASDRUBAL after a march conducted with great judgment and little loss, 
through the interior of Gaul and 
through the passes of the Alps, 
HASDRUBAL appeared in THE—COUNTRY that now is the north of Lombardy, 
HASDRUBAL at the HEAD—OF—troops which HASDRUBAL had partly brought out of SPAIN, 
HASDRUBAL at the HEAD—OF—troops which HASDRUBAL had partly levied among the GAULS and Ligurians on his way.
_02070000            IN —THE—SPRING—OF —AT—THIS—TIME HANNIBAL with his unconquered, 
seemingly unconquerable army, 
had been 11—YEARS in ITALY, 
 executing with strenuous ferocity the vow of hatred to ROMe which had been sworn by him while yet a child at the bidding of his father, 
Hamilcar;  
as he boasted, 
had trained up his 3 sons, 
HANNIBAL, 
Mago, 
Like 3 lion's
 whelps, 
to prey upon THE—ROMAN—S, 
But HANNIBAL's latter campaigns had not been signalised by any such great victories as marked the 1, 
years
 of his —INVASÃON—OF—ITALY, 
The stern spirit of ROMAn resolution, 
ever highest in disaster and danger, 
had neither bent nor despaired beneath
 the merciless blows which "the dire African" dealt her in rapid succession 
 at Trebia, 
 at Thrasymene, 
 at CANNAE, 
 Her population was thinned by repeated slaughter in the field;  
 POVERTY and actual scarcity wore down the survivors, 
through the fearful ravages which HANNIBAL's
 cavalry spread through their corn-fields, 
their pasture-lands, 
their vineyards;  
 many of her allies went over to the invader's side;  
 and new clouds of foreign war threatened her from Macedonia and Gaul, 
 ROMe receded not, 
Rich and poor among her citizens vied with each other in devotion to their country, 
 The wealthy placed their stores, 
all placed their lives at THE—STATE's disposal, 
 And though HANNIBAL could not be driven out of ITALY, 
though every year brought its sufferings and sacrifices,
 ROMe felt that her constancy had not been exerted in vain.
 If ROMe was weakened by the continual strife, 
so was HANNIBAL also;  
 it was clear that the unaided resources of his army were unequal to the
 task of her destruction, 
The single deer-hound could not pull down the
 quarry which he had so furiously assailed, 
ROMe not only stood fiercely
 at bay, 
but had pressed back and gored her antagonist, 
that still,
watched her in act to spring, 
She was weary, 
bleeding at
 every pore, 
 and there seemed to be little hope of her escape, 
if the
 other hound of old Hamilcar's race should come up in time to aid his
 brother in the death-grapple.
 HASDRUBAL had commanded the Carthaginian armies in SPAIN for some time,
 with varying but generally unpropitious fortune, 
He had not the full
 authority over the Punic forces in that country which his brother and
 his father had previously exercised, 
The faction at CARTHAGE, 
which was
 at feud with his family, 
succeeded in fettering and interfering with his
 power, 
 and other generals were from time to time sent into SPAIN, 
whose
 errors and misconduct caused the reverses that HASDRUBAL met with.
 This is expressly attested by the Greek historian POLYBIUS, 
who was
 the intimate friend of the younger Africanus, 
drew his information
 respecting the second PUNIC—WAR from the best possible authorities.
 Livy gives a long narrative of campaigns between THE—ROMAN—commanders
 in SPAIN and HASDRUBAL, 
which is so palpably deformed by fictions and
 exaggerations as to be hardly deserving of attention, 
[See the excellent criticisms of Sir Walter Raleigh on this, 
in his "HISTORY—OF—THE—WORLD," BOOK—V—CHAPTER—III—SECTION—11]
 It is clear that 
             —YEAR—in—THE
 208 B.C., 
at least, 
HASDRUBAL outmanoeuvred PUBLIUS—SCIPIO, 
 who held the command of THE—ROMAN—forces in SPAIN, 
 whose object was to prevent him from passing THE—PYRENEES and marching
 upon ITALY, 
SCIPIO expected that HASDRUBAL would attempt the nearest
 route, 
along THE—COAST—OF—the Mediterranean, 
 and he therefore carefully
 fortified and guarded the passes of THE—EASTern Pyrenees, 
But HASDRUBAL
 passed these mountains near their western extremity, 
 and then, 
 considerable force of Spanish infantry, 
with a small number of African
with some elephants and much treasure, 
he marched, 
not directly
 towards THE—COAST—OF—the Mediterranean, 
but in a north-eastern line
 towards the centre of Gaul, 
He halted for the winter IN—THE—TERRITORY
 of the Arverni, 
the modern Auvergne, 
 and conciliated or purchased the
 good-will of the GAULS in that region so far, 
that he not only found
 friendly winter quarters among them, 
but great numbers of them enlisted
 under him, 
on the approach of spring marched with him to invade
 ITALY.
 By thus entering Gaul at the south-west, 
avoiding its southern
 maritime districts, 
HASDRUBAL kept THE—ROMANs in complete ignorance of
 his precise operations and movements in that country, 
 all that they knew
 was that HASDRUBAL had baffled SCIPIO's attempts to detain him in SPAIN; that he had crossed THE—PYRENEES with soldiers, 
elephants, 
money,
 and that he was raising fresh forces among the GAULS, 
The spring was
 sure to bring him into ITALY, 
 and then would come the real tempest of
 THE—WAR, 
when from the north and from the south the two Carthaginian
each under a son of the Thunderbolt, 
were to gather together
 around the seven hills of ROMe, 
[Hamilcar was surnamed Barca, 
 means the Thunderbolt, 
Sultan Bajazet had the similar surname of
 Yilderim]
 In this emergency THE—ROMANs looked among themselves earnestly and
 anxiously for leaders fit to meet the perils of the coming campaign.
 THE—SENATE recommended THE—PEOPLE to elect, 
as one of their KONSULs,
 Caius CLAUDIUS NERO, 
a patrician of one of the families of the great
 Claudian house, 
NERO had served             —DURING—the preceding years of THE—WAR,
 both against HANNIBAL in ITALY, 
against HASDRUBAL in SPAIN, 
 but it
 is remarkable that the histories, 
which we possess, 
record no successes
 as having been achieved by him either before or after his great campaign
 of the Metaurus, 
It proves much for the sagacity of the leading men of
 THE—SENATE, 
that they recognised in NERO the energy and spirit which
 were required at this crisis, 
it is equally creditable to the
 patriotism of THE—PEOPLE, 
that they followed the advice of THE—SENATE by
 electing a general who had no showy exploits to recommend him to their
 choice.
 It was a matter of greater difficulty to find a second KONSUL, 
 THE—LAWs
 required that one KONSUL should be a plebeian, 
 and the plebeian nobility
 had been fearfully thinned by THE—EVENTs of THE—WAR, 
While THE—SENATORS
 anxiously deliberated among themselves what fit colleague for NERO could
 be nominated at the coming comitia, 
sorrowfully recalled the
 names of MARCELLUS, 
Gracchus, 
other plebeian generals who were no
 more--one taciturn and moody old man sat in sullen apathy among the
 conscript fathers, 
This was MARCUS—LIVIUS, 
who had been KONSUL in the
 gear before—THE—BEGINNING—OF this war, 
had then gained a victory
 over the Illyrians, 
After his KONSULship he had been impeached before
 THE—PEOPLE on a charge of peculation and unfair DIVISION—OF—the spoils
 among his soldiers: the verdict was unjustly given against him, 
 sense of this wrong, 
of the indignity thus put upon him, 
had rankled
 unceasingly in the bosom of Livius, 
so that for 8—YEARS after his
 trial he had lived in seclusion at his country seat, 
taking no part in
 any affairs of state, 
Latterly the censors had compelled him to come to
 ROMe and resume his place IN—THE—SENATE, 
where he used to sit gloomily
 apart, 
giving only a silent vote, 
At last an unjust accusation against
 one of his near kinsmen made him break silence, 
 and he harangued the
 house in words of weight and sense, 
which drew attention to him, 
 taught THE—SENATORS that a strong spirit dwelt beneath that unimposing
 exterior, 
Now, 
while they were debating on what noble of a plebeian
 house was fit to assume the perilous honours of the KONSULate, 
some of
 the elder of them looked on MARCUS—LIVIUS, 
remembered that in the
 very last triumph which had been celebrated —IN—THE—streets of ROMe this
 grim old man had sat in the car of victory, 
 and that he had offered the
 last grand thanksgiving sacrifice for the success of THE—ROMAN—arms
 that had bled before Capitoline Jove, 
There had been no triumphs since
 HANNIBAL came into ITALY, 
[MARCELLUS had been only allowed an ovation
 for the conquest of Syracuse] 
The Illyrian campaign of Livius was the
 last that had been so honoured, 
 perhaps it might be destined for him now
 to renew the long-interrupted series, 
THE—SENATORS resolved that Livius
 should be put in nomination as KONSUL with NERO, 
 THE—PEOPLE were willing
 to elect him, 
 the only opposition came from himself, 
He taunted them
 with their inconsistency is honouring a man they had convicted of a base
 crime, 
"If I am innocent," said he, 
"why did you place such a stain on
 me? If I am guilty, 
why am I more fit for a second KONSULship than I was
 for my 1, 
one?" The other senators remonstrated with him urging the
 example of the great Camillus, 
after an unjust condemnation on a
 similar charge, 
both served and saved his country, 
At last Livius ceased
 to object, 
 and Caius CLAUDIUS NERO and MARCUS—LIVIUS were chosen KONSULs
 of ROMe.
 A quarrel had long existed between the two KONSULs, 
THE—SENATORS
 strove to effect a reconciliation between them before THE—CAMPAIGN.
 Here AGAIN Livius for a long time obstinately resisted the wish of his
 fellow-senators, 
He said it was best for THE—STATE that he and NERO
 should continue to hate one another, 
Each would do his duty better,
 when he knew that he was watched by an enemy in the person of his own
 colleague, 
At last the entreaties of THE—SENATORS prevailed, 
Livius
 consented to forego the feud, 
to co-operate with NERO in preparing
 for the coming struggle.
 As soon as the winter snows were thawed, 
HASDRUBAL commenced his march
 from Auvergne to the Alps, 
He experienced none of the difficulties which
 his brother had met with from the mountain tribes, 
HANNIBAL's army
 had been the 1, 
body of regular troops that had ever traversed the regions;  
as wild animals assail a traveller, 
the natives rose
 against it instinctively, 
in imagined defence of their own habitations,
 which they supposed to be the objects of Carthaginian ambition, 
 the fame of THE—WAR, 
with which ITALY had now been convulsed for eleven
 years, 
had penetrated into the Alpine passes, 
 and the mountaineers
 understood that a mighty city, 
southward of the Alps, 
was to be attacked
 by the troops whom they saw marching among them, 
They not only opposed
 no resistance to the —PASSAGE of HASDRUBAL, 
but many of them, 
out of
 the love of enterprise and plunder, 
or allured by THE—HIGH pay that he
 offered, 
took service with him, 
 and thus he advanced upon ITALY with an
 army that gathered strength at every league, 
It is said, 
that some
 of the most important engineering works which HANNIBAL had constructed,
 were found by HASDRUBAL still in existence, 
materially favoured the
 speed of his advance, 
He thus emerged into ITALY from the Alpine valleys
 much sooner than had been anticipated, 
Many warriors of the Ligurian
 tribes joined him, 
crossing the river Po, 
he marched down its
 southern bank to THE—CITY—OF—Placentia, 
which he wished to secure as a
 base for his future operations, 
Placentia resisted him as bravely as it
 had resisted HANNIBAL eleven YEARS—BEFORE, 
 and for some time HASDRUBAL
 was occupied with a fruitless siege before its walls.
 6 armies were levied for the defence of ITALY when the long-dreaded
 approach of HASDRUBAL was announced, 
Seventy thousand ROMAns served in
 the fifteen legions of which, 
with an equal number of Italian allies,
 those armies and the garrisons were composed, 
Upwards of thirty thousand
 more ROMAns were serving in Sicily, 
Sardinia, 
SPAIN, 
The whole
 number of ROMAn citizens of an age fit for MILITARY duty scarcely
 exceeded a hundred and thirty thousand, 
The census taken before THE—WAR
 had shown a total of two hundred and seventy thousand, 
which had been
 diminished by more than half
             —DURING twelve years, 
These numbers are
 fearfully emphatic of the extremity to which ROMe was reduced, 
 her gigantic efforts in that great agony of her fate, 
Not merely men,
 but money and MILITARY stores, 
were drained to the utmost, 
 and if
 the armies of that year should be swept off by a repetition of the
 slaughters of Thrasymene and CANNAE, 
all felt that ROMe would cease to
 exist, 
Even if THE—CAMPAIGN were to be marked by no decisive success on
 either side, 
her ruin seemed certain, 
In South ITALY HANNIBAL had either
 detached ROMe's allies from her, 
or had impoverished them by the ravages
 of his army, 
If HASDRUBAL could have done the same in Upper ITALY, 
 if
 Etruria, 
Umbria, 
Northern Latium had either revolted or been laid
 waste, 
ROMe must have sunk beneath sheer starvation, 
 for the hostile
 or desolated territory would have yielded no supplies of corn for her
 population, 
 and money, 
to purchase it from abroad, 
there was none.
 Instant victory was a matter of life and death, 
3 of her 6 armies
 were ordered to the north, 
but the 1, 
of these was required to
 overawe the disaffected Etruscans, 
The second army of the north was
 pushed forward, 
under Porcius, 
the PRAETOR, 
to meet and keep in, 
check
 the advanced troops of HASDRUBAL, 
 while the third, 
the grand army of the
 north, 
which was to be under the immediate command of THE—KONSUL—Livius,
 who had THE—CHIEF command in all North ITALY, 
advanced more slowly in
 its support, 
There were similarly 3 armies —IN—THE—south, 
under the
 orders of the other KONSUL CLAUDIUS NERO.
 The lot had decided that Livius was to be opposed to HASDRUBAL, 
 that NERO should face HANNIBAL, 
And "when all was ordered as themselves
 thought best, 
the two KONSULs went forth of THE—CITY, 
 each his several
 way, 
THE—PEOPLE—OF—Rome were now quite otherwise affected, 
than they had
 been, 
when L, 
AEmilius Paulus and C, 
Tarentius Varro were sent against
 HANNIBAL, 
They did no longer take upon them to direct their generals, 
or
 bid them dispatch, 
wIN—THE—VICTORY betimes, 
 but rather they stood
 in fear, 
lest all diligence, 
valour should prove too little.
 For since, 
few years had passed, 
wherein some one of their generals
 had not been slain, 
 and since it was manifest, 
that if either of
 these present KONSULs were defeated, 
or put to the worst, 
the two
 Carthaginians would forthwith join, 
make short work with the other:
 it seemed a greater happiness than could be expected, 
that each of them
 should return home victor, 
 and come off with honour from such mighty
 opposition as he was like to find, 
With extreme difficulty had ROMe held
 up her head ever since —BATTLE—OF—CANNAE, 
 though it were so, 
 HANNIBAL alone, 
with little help from CARTHAGE, 
had continued THE—WAR in
 ITALY, 
But there was now arrived another son of Amilcar, 
 and one that,
 in his present expedition, 
had seemed a man of more sufficiency than
 HANNIBAL himself, 
whereas in that long and dangerous march through
 barbarous nations, 
over great rivers and mountains, 
that were thought
 unpassable, 
HANNIBAL had lost a great part of his army, 
 this Asdrubal,
 —IN—THE—same places, 
had multiplied his numbers, 
 and gathering the
 people that he found in the way, 
descended from the Alps like a rolling
 snow-ball, 
far greater than he came over THE—PYRENEES at his 1.
 setting out of SPAIN, 
These considerations, 
the like, 
of which fear
 presented many unto them, 
caused THE—PEOPLE—OF—Rome to wait upon their
 KONSULs out of THE—TOWN, 
like a pensive train of mourners, 
 thinking upon
 MARCELLUS and Crispinus, 
upon whom, 
in the like sort, 
they had given
 attendance the last year, 
but saw neither of them return alive from
 a less dangeroUS—WAR, 
Particularly old Q, 
Fabius gave his accustomed
 advice to M, 
Livius, 
that he should abstain from giving or taking
until he well understood the enemies' condition, 
But the KONSUL
 made him a froward answer, 
said, 
that he would fight the very 1.
 day, 
for that he thought it long till he should either recover his
 honour by victory, 
by seeing the overthrow of his own unjust
 citizens, 
satisfy himself with the joy of a great, 
though not an
 honest revenge, 
But his meaning was better than his words." 
[Sir Walter
 Raleigh]
 HANNIBAL at this period occupied with his veteran but much reduced
 forces the extreme south of ITALY, 
It had not been expected either by
 friend or foe, 
that HASDRUBAL would effect his —PASSAGE of the Alps so
 —EARLY, —J—IM, as actually occurred, 
And even when HANNIBAL learned
 that his brother was in ITALY, 
had advanced as far as Placentia,
 he was obliged to pause for further intelligence, 
before he himself
 commenced active operations, 
as he could not tell whether his brother
 might not be invited into Etruria, 
to aid the party there that was
 disaffected to ROMe or whether he would march down by the Adriatic Sea.
 HANNIBAL led his troops out of their winter quarters in Bruttium, 
 marched northward as far as Canusium, 
NERO had his HEAD—QUARTERs near
 Venusia, 
with an army which he had increased to forty thousand foot and
 two thousand 5 hundred horse, 
by incorporating under his own command
 some of the legions which had been intended to set under other generals
 —IN—THE—south, 
There was another ROMAn army twenty thousand strong, 
south
 of HANNIBAL, 
at Tarentum, 
The strength of that city secured this ROMAn
 force from any attack by HANNIBAL, 
it was a serious matter to march
 northward and leave it in his rear, 
free to act against all his depots
 and allies in the friendly part of ITALY, 
which for the last two or
 3 campaigns had served him for a base of his operations, 
Moreover,
 NERO's army was so strong that HANNIBAL could not concentrate troops
 enough to assume the offensive against it without weakening his
 garrisons, 
relinquishing, 
at least FOR—A—TIME, 
his grasp upon the
 southern provinces, 
To do this before he was certainly informed of his
 brother's operations would have been an useless sacrifice, 
 as NERO could
 retreat before him upon the other ROMAn armies near the capital, 
 HANNIBAL knew by experience that a mere advance of his army upon the
 walls of ROMe would have no effect on the fortunes of THE—WAR, 
In
 the hope, 
probably, 
of inducing NERO to follow him, 
of gaining an
 opportunity of outmanoeuvring THE—ROMAN—KONSUL and attacking him on his
 march, 
HANNIBAL moved into LUCANia, 
then back into Apulis, 
--he
 AGAIN marched down into Bruttium, 
strengthened his army by a levy of
 recruits in that district, 
NERO followed him, 
but gave him no chance of
 assailing him at a disadvantage, 
Some partial encounters seem to have
 taken place, 
 but THE—KONSUL— could not prevent HANNIBAL's junction
 with his Bruttian levies, 
nor could HANNIBAL gain an opportunity of
 surprising and crushing the KONSUL, 
HANNIBAL returned to his former
 HEAD—QUARTERs at Canusium, 
halted there in expectation of further
 tidings of his brother's movements, 
NERO also resumed his former
 position in observation of the Carthaginian army.
[The annalists whom Livy copied, 
spoke of NERO's gaining repeated
 victories over HANNIBAL, 
killing, 
 and taking his men by tens of
 thousands, 
The falsehood of all this is self-evident, 
If NERO could thus
 always beat HANNIBAL, 
THE—ROMANs would not have been in such an agony
 of dread about HASDRUBAL, 
as all writers describe, 
Indeed, 
we have the
 express testimony of POLYBIUS that such statements as we read in Livy
 of MARCELLUS, 
NERO, 
others gaining victories over HANNIBAL in ITALY, must be all fabrications of ROMAn vanity, 
POLYBIUS states (—LIBER—xv, sec, 16) 
that HANNIBAL was never defeated before —BATTLE—OF—Zama, 
 and in
 another —PASSAGE (BOOK—IX—CHAPTER—3) he mentions that after the defeats
 which HANNIBAL inflicted on THE—ROMANs in the —EARLY, years of THE—WAR,
 they no longer dared face his army in a pitched battle on a fair field,
 and yet they resolutely maintained THE—WAR, 
He rightly explains this by
 referring to the superiority of HANNIBAL's cavalry the arm which gained
 him all his victories, 
By keeping within fortified lines, 
or close to
 the sides of the mountains when HANNIBAL approached them, 
THE—ROMAN—S
 rendered his cavalry ineffective, 
 and a glance at the geography of ITALY
 will show how an army can traverse the greater part of that country
 without venturing far from THE—HIGH grounds]
 Meanwhile, 
HASDRUBAL had raised —SIEGE—OF—Placentia, 
 advancing towards Ariminum on the Adriatic, 
driving before him the
 ROMAn army under Porcina, 
Nor when THE—KONSUL—Livius had come up, 
 united the second and third armies of the north, 
could he make head
 against the invaders, 
THE—ROMANs still fell back before HASDRUBAL,
 beyond Ariminum, 
beyond the Metaurus, 
as far as the little town of
 Sena, 
to the southeast of that river, 
HASDRUBAL was not unmindful of the
 necessity of acting in concert with his brother, 
He sent messengers
 to HANNIBAL to announce his own line of march and to propose that they
 should unite their armies in South Umbria, 
then wheel round against
Those messengers traversed the greater part of ITALY in safety; but, 
when close to the object of their mission, 
were captured by a ROMAn
 detachment, 
 and HASDRUBAL's letter, 
detailing his whole plan of the
 campaign, 
was laid, 
not in his brother's hands, 
but in those of the
 commander of THE—ROMAN—armies of the south, 
NERO saw at once the full
 importance of the crisis, 
The two sons of Hamilcar were now within two
 hundred miles of each other, 
if ROMe were to be saved, 
the brothers
 must never meet alive, 
NERO instantly ordered seven thousand picked men,
 a thousand being cavalry, 
to hold themselves in readiness for a secret
 expedition against one of HANNIBAL's garrisons, 
 and as soon as night had
 set in, 
he hurried forward on his bold enterprise: but he quickly left
 the southern road towards LUCANia, 
wheeling round, 
pressed northward
 with the utmost rapidity towards Picenum, 
             —DURING—the preceding afternoon, 
He had, 
 sent messengers to ROMe, 
who were to lay HASDRUBAL's letters
 before THE—SENATE, 
There was a law forbidding a KONSUL to make war or to
 march his army beyond the limits of the province assigned to him, 
 but in
 such an emergency NERO did not wait for the permission of THE—SENATE to
 execute his project, 
but informed them that he was ALREADY on his
 march to join Livius against HASDRUBAL, 
He advised them to send the two
 legions which formed the home garrison, 
on to Narnia, 
so as to defend
 that pass of the Flaminian road against HASDRUBAL, 
in case he should
 march upon ROMe before the KONSULar armies could attack him, 
They were
 to supply the place of those two legions at ROMe by a levy EN MASSE in
 THE—CITY, 
by ordering up the reserve legion from Capua, 
These were
 his communications to THE—SENATE, 
He also sent horseman forward along
 his line of march, 
with orders to the local authorities to bring stores of provisions and refreshments of every kind to the road-side, 
 to have relays of carriages ready for the conveyance of the wearied
 soldiers, 
Such were the precautions which he took for accelerating his
 and when he had advanced some little distance from his camp, 
 briefly informed his soldiers of the real object of their expedition.
 He told them that there never was a design more seemingly audacious, 
 more really safe, 
He said he was leading them to a certain victory, 
for
 his colleague had an army large enough to balance the enemy ALREADY, 
so
 that THEIR swords would decisively turn the scale, 
The very rumour
 that a fresh KONSUL and a fresh army had come up, 
when heard on the
 battle-field (and he would take care that they should not be heard of
 before they were seen and felt) would settle THE—CAMPAIGN, 
They would
 have all the credit of THE—VICTORY, 
of having dealt the final
 decisive blow, 
He appealed to the enthusiastic reception which they
 ALREADY met with on their line of march as a proof and an omen of their
 good fortune, 
[Livy, 
LIBER—xxvii—CHAPTER—45] 
their whole path
 was amidst the vows and prayers and praises of their countrymen, 
 entire population of the districts through which they passed, 
flocked
 to the road-side to see and bless the deliverers of their country, 
Food,
 drink, 
refreshments of every kind were eagerly pressed on their
 acceptance, 
Each peasant thought a favour was conferred on him, 
if one
 of NERO's chosen—BAND—would accept aught at his hands, 
The soldiers
 caught the full spirit of their leader, 
Night and day they marched
 forwards, 
taking their hurried meals in the ranks and resting by relays
 in the waggons which the zeal of THE—COUNTRY-people provided, 
 followed in the rear of the column.
at ROMe, 
THE—NEWS of NERO's expedition had caused the
 greatest excitement and alarm, 
All men felt the full audacity of the
 enterprise, 
but hesitated what epithet to apply to it, 
It was evident
 that NERO's conduct would be judged of by THE—EVENT, 
that most unfair
 criterion, 
as THE—ROMAN—historian truly terms it, 
["Adparebat (quo nihil
 iniquius est) ex eventu famam habiturum."--LIVY——LIBER—XXVII— c, 
44]
 People reasoned on the perilous state in which NERO had left the rest of
 his army, 
without a general, 
deprived of the core of its strength,
 in the vicinity of the terrible HANNIBAL, 
They speculated on how long
 it would take HANNIBAL to pursue and overtake NERO himself, 
his
 expeditionary force, 
They talked over THE—FORMER—disasters of THE—WAR,
 and the FALL—OF—both THE—KONSULS of the last year, 
All these calamities
 had come on them while they had only one Carthaginian general and army
 to deal with in ITALY, 
Now they had two PUNIC—WARs at one time, 
 had two Carthaginian armies, 
 they had almost two Hannibals in ITALY,
 HASDRUBAL was sprung from the same father, 
 trained up —IN—THE—same
 hostility to ROMe, 
 equally practised in battle against its legions, 
 and,
 if the comparative speed and success with which he had crossed the Alps
 was a fair test, 
he was even a better general than his brother, 
With
 fear for their interpreter of every rumour, 
they exaggerated the
 strength of their enemy's forces in every quarter, 
criticised and
 distrusted their own.
 Fortunately for ROMe, 
while she was thus a prey to terror and anxiety,
 her KONSUL's nerves were strong, 
he resolutely urged on his march
 towards Sena, 
where his colleague, 
the PRAETOR Portius were
 encamped, 
 HASDRUBAL's army being in position about half a mile to the
NERO had sent couriers forward to apprise his colLEAGUE—OF—his
 project and of his approach, 
 and by the advice of Livius, 
NERO so timed
 his final march as to reach the camp at Sena by night, 
ACCORDING—TO—a
 previous arrangement, 
NERO's men were received silently into the tents
 of their comrades, 
each ACCORDING—TO—his rank, 
By these means there was
 no enlargement of the camp that could betray to HASDRUBAL the accession
 of force which THE—ROMANs had received, 
This was considerable, 
 as NERO's
 numbers had been increased on the march by the volunteers, 
who offered
 themselves in crowds, 
from whom he selected the most promising men,
 and especially the veterans of former campaigns, 
A COUNCIL—OF—war was
 held on the morning after his arrival, 
in which some advised that time
 should be given for NERO's men to refresh themselves, 
after the fatigue
 of such a march, 
But NERO vehemently opposed all delay, 
"The officer,"
 said he, 
"who is for giving time for my men here to rest themselves, 
 for giving time to HANNIBAL to attack my men, 
whom I have left in the
 camp in Apulia, 
He is for giving time to HANNIBAL and HASDRUBAL to
 discover my march, 
to manoeuvre for a junction with each other in
 Cisalpine Gaul at their leisure, 
We must fight instantly, 
while both the
 foe here and the foe —IN—THE—south are ignorant of our movements, 
We must
 destroy this HASDRUBAL, 
I must be back In Apulia before HANNIBAL
 awakes from his torpor." 
[Livy——LIBER—XXVII— c, 
45] 
NERO's advice
 prevailed, 
It was resolved to fight directly, 
 and before THE—KONSULS and
 PRAETOR left the tent of Livius, 
the red ensign, 
which was the signal to
 prepare for immediate ACTION, 
was hoisted, 
THE—ROMANs forthwith drew
 up in battle array outside the camp.
 HASDRUBAL had been anxious to bring Livius and Porcius to battle, 
 he had not judged it expedient to attack them in their lines, 
And now,
 on hearing that THE—ROMANs offered battle, 
he also drew up his men, 
 advanced towards them, 
No spy or deserter had informed him of NERO's
 arrival, 
 nor had he received any direct information that he had more
 than his old enemies to deal with, 
But as he rode forward to reconnoitre
 THE—ROMAN—lines, 
he thought that their numbers seemed to have increased,
 and that the armour of some-of them was unusually dull and stained, 
 noticed also that the horses of some of the cavalry appeared to be rough
 and out of condition, 
as if they had just come from a succession of
 forced marches, 
So also, 
though, 
owing to the precaution of Livius, 
 ROMAn camp showed no change of size, 
it had not escaped the quick ear of
 the Carthaginian general, 
that the trumpet, 
which gave the signal to
 THE—ROMAN—legions, 
sounded that morning once oftener than usual, 
as if
 directing the troops of some additional superior officer, 
HASDRUBAL,
 from his Spanish campaigns, 
was well acquainted with all the sounds
 and signals of ROMAn war, 
 and from all that he heard and saw, 
he felt
 convinced that both THE—ROMAN—KONSULs were before him, 
In doubt and
 difficulty as to what might have taken place between the armies of the
 south, 
probably hoping that HANNIBAL also was approaching, 
HASDRUBAL
 determined to avoid an encounter with the combined ROMAn forces, 
 to endeavour to retreat upon Insubrian Gaul, 
where he would be in a
 friendly country, 
could endeavour to re-open his communications with
 his brother, 
He therefore led his troops back into their camp, 
 THE—ROMANs did not venture on an assault upon his entrenchments, 
 HASDRUBAL did not choose to commence his retreat in their sight, 
THE—DAY
 passed away in inaction, 
At the 1, 
watch of the night, 
HASDRUBAL led
 his men silently out of their camp, 
moved northwards towards the
 Metaurus, 
in the hope of placing that river between himself and the
 ROMAns before his retreat was discovered, 
His guides betrayed him; and having purposely led him away from the part of the river that was
 fordable, 
they made their escape in the dark, 
left HASDRUBAL and his
 army wandering in confusion along the steep bank, 
seeking in vain
 for a spot where the stream could be safely crossed, 
At last they
 halted, 
 and when day dawned on them, 
HASDRUBAL found that great numbers
 of his men, 
in their fatigue and impatience, 
had lost all discipline and
 subordination, 
that many of his Gallic auxiliaries had got drunk,
 and were lying helpless in their quarters, 
THE—ROMAN—cavalry was soon
 seen coming up in pursuit, 
followed at no great distance by the legions,
 which marched in readiness for an instant engagement, 
It was hopeless
 for HASDRUBAL, 
to think of continuing his retreat before them, 
 prospect of immediate battle might recall the disordered part of his
 troops to a sense of duty, 
revive the instinct of discipline, 
 therefore ordered his men to prepare for ACTION instantly, 
made the
 best arrangement of them that the nature of the ground would permit.
 Heeren has well described the general appearance of a Carthaginian army.
 He says: "It was an assemblage of the most opposite races of the human
 species, 
from the farthest parts of the globe, 
Hordes of half-naked
 GAULS were ranged next to companies of white clothed Iberians, 
 savage Ligurians next to the far-travelled Nasamones and Lotophagi.
 Carthaginians and Phoenic1—Africans formed the centre, 
 while innumerable troops of Numidian horse-men, 
taken from all the tribes of the Desert,
 swarmed about on unsaddled horses, 
formed the wings;  
 the van was composed of Balearic slingers;  
 and a line of colossal elephants, 
with
 their Ethiopian guides, 
formed, 
a chain of moving fortresses
 before the whole army, 
Such were THE—USual materials and arrangements of
 the hosts that fought for CARTHAGE;  
 but the troops under HASDRUBAL were
 not in all respects thus constituted or thus stationed, 
He seems to have
 been especially deficient in cavalry, 
he had few African troops,
 though some Carthaginians of high rank were with him, 
His veteran
 Spanish infantry, 
armed with helmets and shields, 
short
 cut-and-thrust swords, 
were the best part of his army, 
These, 
 few Africans, 
he drew up on his right wing, 
under his own personal
 command, 
In the centre, 
he placed his Ligurian infantry, 
on the left
 wing he placed or retained the GAULS, 
who were armed with long javelins
 and with huge broadswords and targets, 
The rugged nature of the ground
 in front and on the flank of this part of his line, 
made him hope that
 THE—ROMAN—right wing would be unable to come to close quarters with
 these unserviceable barbarians, 
before he could make some impression
 with his Spanish veterans on THE—ROMAN—left, 
This was the only chance
 that he had of victory or safety, 
he seems to have done everything
 that good generalship could do to secure it, 
He placed his elephants in
 advance of his centre and right wing, 
He had caused the driver of each
 of them to be provided with a sharp iron spike and a mallet, 
 and had
 given orders that every beast that became unmanageable, 
ran back
 upon his own ranks, 
should be instantly killed, 
by driving the spike
 into the vertebra at the junction of the head and the spine, 
HASDRUBAL's
 elephants were ten in number, 
We have no trustworthy information as to
 the amount of his infantry, 
but it is quite clear that he was greatly
 outnumbered by the combined ROMAn forces."
 The tactic of THE—ROMAN—legions had NOT—YET acquired the perfection
 which it received from THE—MILITARY genius of Marius, 
[Most probably
_01040000_01010000   —DURING the PERIOD—OF—his prolonged KONSULship, 
from 
_01040000_01010000   while he was training his army against the Cimbri and the Teutons] 
and 
which we read of in the 1, 
CHAPTER—of Gibbon, 
We possess in that great work an acCOUNT—OF—THE—ROMAN—legions at the end of the
 commonwealth, 
             —DURING—the —EARLY, ages of THE—EMPIRE, 
which those alone
 can adequately admire, 
who have attempted a similar description, 
 have also, 
in the sixth and 17. books of POLYBIUS, 
an elaborate
 discussion on THE—MILITARY —SYSTEM of THE—ROMANs in his time, 
 not far distant —FROM—THE—TIME—OF —BATTLE—OF—THE—Metaurus, 
 subject is beset with difficulties: and instead of entering into minute
 but inconclusive details, 
I would refer to Gibbon's 1, 
chapter, 
 serving for a general description of THE—ROMAN—army in its period of
 perfection, 
 and remark, 
that the training and armour which the whole
 legion received in the time of AUGUSTUS, 
two centuries earlier,
 only partially introduced, 
Two divisions of troops, 
called Hastati and
 Principes, 
formed the bulk of each ROMAn legion —IN—THE—second PUNIC—WAR.
 Each of these divisions was twelve hundred strong, 
The Hastatus and the
 Princeps legionary bore a breast-plate or coat of mail, 
brazen greaves,
 and a brazen helmet, 
with a lofty, 
upright crest of scarlet or black
 feathers, 
He had a large oblong shield, 
as weapons of offence, 
two
 javelins, 
one of which was light and slender, 
but the other was a strong
 and massive weapon, 
with a shaft about 4 feet long, 
an iron head
 of equal length, 
The sword was carried on the right thigh, 
was a
 short cut-and thrust weapon, 
like that which was used by THE—SPANIARDS.
 Thus armed, 
the Hastati formed the front DIVISION—OF—the legion, 
 Principes the second, 
Each division was drawn up about ten deep, 
 a space
 of 3 feet being allowed between the files as well as the ranks, 
 as to give each legionary ample room for THE—USE—OF—his javelins, 
 of his sword and shield, 
The men —IN—THE—second rank did not stand
 immediately behind those in the 1, 
rank, 
but the files were
 alternate, 
like the position of the men on a draught board, 
This was termed the quincunx order, 
Niebuhr considers that this arrangement enabled the legion to keep up a shower of javelins on the enemy for some considerable time, 
He says: "When the 1, 
line had hurled its pila,
 it probably stepped back between those who stood behind it, 
who with
 two steps forward restored the front nearly to its 1, 
position;  
 a movement which, 
ON—ACCOUNT—OF—the arrangement of the quincunx, 
could be executed without losing a moment, 
Thus one line succeeded the other in the front till it was time to draw the swords;  
 nay, 
when it was found expedient, 
the lines which had ALREADY been in the front might repeat
 this change, 
since the stores of pila were surely not confined to the two which each soldier took with him into battle.
 "The same change must have taken place in fighting with the sword;  
 which, 
when the same tactic was adopted on both sides, 
was anything but a confused MELEE;  
 on the contrary, 
it was a series of single combats."
 He adds, 
that a MILITARY man of experience had been KONSULted by him on
 the subject, 
had given it as his opinion, 
"that the change of the
 lines as described above was by no means impracticable;  
 and in the absence of the deafening noise of gunpowder, 
it cannot have had even any difficulty with trained troops."
 The third DIVISION—OF—the legion was 6 hundred strong, 
acted as a reserve, 
It was always composed of veteran soldiers, 
who were called the Triarii, 
Their arms were the same as those of the Principes and Hastati;  
 except that each Triarian carried a spear instead of javelins, 
The rest of the legion consisted of light armed troops, 
who acted as skirmishers.
 The cavalry of each legion was at this period about 3 hundred strong, 
The Italian allies, 
who were attached to the legion, 
seem to
 have been similarly armed and equipped, 
but their numerical proportion of cavalry was much larger.
 Such was the nature of the forces that advanced on THE—ROMAN—SIDE to the —BATTLE—OF—the Metaurus, 
NERO commanded the right wing, 
Livius the left, 
the PRAETOR Porcius had the command of the centre, 
"Both ROMAns and Carthaginians well understood how much depended upon the fortune of this
how little hope of safety there was for the vanquished, 
Only THE—ROMANs herein seemed to have had the better in conceit and opinion,
 that they were to fight with men desirous to have fled from them, 
And ACCORDING—TO—this presumption came Livius the KONSUL, 
with a proud
 bravery, 
to give charge on THE—SPANIARDS and Africans, 
by whom he was so sharply entertained that victory seemed very doubtful, 
The Africans and Spaniards were stout soldiers, 
well acquainted with the manner of THE—ROMAN—fight, 
The Ligurians, 
were a hardy nation, 
not accustomed to give ground;  
 which they needed the less, 
or were able now to do, 
being placed in the midst, 
Porcius found great opposition;  
with great slaughter on both sides, 
prevailed little or nothing, 
Besides other difficulties, 
they were exceedingly troubled by the elephants, 
that brake their 1, 
ranks, 
put them in
 such disorder, 
as THE—ROMAN—ensigns were driven to fall back;  
 all this while CLAUDIUS NERO, 
labouring in vain against a steep hill, 
was unable
 to come to blows with the GAULS that stood opposite him, 
but out of danger, 
This made HASDRUBAL the more confident, 
seeing his own left
 wing safe, 
did the more boldly and fiercely make impression on the other side upon the left wing of THE—ROMANs."
["HISTORIE—of THE—WORLD," by Sir Walter Raleigh—PAGE—946]
 But at last NERO, 
who found that HASDRUBAL refused his left wing, 
 who could not overcome the difficulties of the ground in the quarter
 assigned to him, 
decided the battle by another stroke of that military
 genius which had inspired his march, 
Wheeling a brigade of his best men
 round the rear of the rest of THE—ROMAN—army, 
NERO fiercely charged the
 flank of THE—SPANIARDS and Africans, 
The charge was as successful as it
 was sudden, 
Rolled back in disorder upon each other, 
overwhelmed
 by numbers, 
THE—SPANIARDS and Ligurians died, 
fighting gallantly to the
 last, 
The GAULS, 
who had taken little or no part —IN—THE—strife of the
were then surrounded, 
butchered almost without resistance.
 HASDRUBAL, 
after having, 
by the confession of his enemies, 
done all that
 a general could do, 
when he saw that THE—VICTORY was irreparably lost,
 scorning to survive the gallant, 
 host which he had led, 
to gratify,
 as a captive, 
ROMAn cruelty and pride, 
spurred his horse into the midst
 of a ROMAn cohort, 
 where, 
sword in hand, 
he met the death that was
 worthy of the son of Hamilcar and the brother of HANNIBAL.
 Success the most complete had crowned NERO's enterprise, 
Returning as
 rapidly as he had advanced, 
he was AGAIN facing the inactive enemies in
 the south, 
before they even knew of his march, 
But he brought with him
 a ghastly trophy of what he had done, 
In the true spirit of that savage
 brutality which deformed THE—ROMAN—national character, 
NERO ordered
 HASDRUBAL's head to be flung into his brother's camp, 
Eleven years had
 passed since HANNIBAL had last gazed on those features, 
The sons of
 Hamilcar had then planned their —SYSTEM of warfare against ROMe, 
 they had so nearly brought to successful accomplishment, 
Year after year
 had HANNIBAL been struggling in ITALY, 
in the hope of one day hailing
 THE—ARRIVAL—OF—him whom he had left in SPAIN, 
 and of seeing his
 brother's eye flash with affection and pride at the junction of their
 irresistible hosts, 
He now saw that eye glazed in death and, 
in the
 agony of his heart, 
the great Carthaginian groaned aloud that he
 recognised his country's destiny.
[Carthagini jam non ego nuntios
 Mittam superbos, 
 Occidit, 
occidit
 Spes omnis et fortuna nostri
 Nominis, 
Hastrubale interemto.--HORACE]
proposed that they should
 make a night attack on THE—PERSIANS, 
The King is said to have answered,
 that he scorned to such a victory, 
that ALEXANDER must conquer
 openly and fairly, 
Arrian justly remarks that ALEXANDER's resolution was
 as wise as it was spirited, 
Besides the confusion and uncertainty which
 are inseparable from night engagements, 
encourage him
 to renew the contest, 
but to gain such a victory as should leave his rival without
 apology for defeat, 
were prepared to meet a night
 attack, 
kept them under
 arms all night, 
while it brought their adversaries all fresh and
 vigorous against them.
 Aristobulus copied it into his journal, 
through Arrian,
 unusually authentic information as to the composition and arrangement
 of the PERSIAn army, 
 Arachosian cavalry, 
Next to these Darius placed the troops from PERSIA
 proper, 
next to these
 the Cadusians, 
Darius's own station
 was in the centre, 
the DIVISION—OF—PERSIAns who were distinguished
 by the golden apples that formed knobs of their spears, 
Here also were
 stationed the body-guard of the PERSIAn nobility, 
there
 were in the centre, 
the Uxian and BABYLONian
The brigade of Greek
 mercenaries, 
 considered fit to stand in the charge of the Macedonian phalanx,
 was drawn up on either side of THE—ROYAL—chariot, 
The right wing
 was composed of the CoeloSYRIAns and Mesopotamians, 
 Sacesinae, 
In advance of the line on the left wing were placed the
 Scythian cavalry, 
a hundred
 scythe-armed chariots, 
The elephants and fifty scythe-armed chariots
 were ranged in front of the centre, 
with the
 Armenian and Cappadocian cavalry, 
were drawn up in advance of the right
 wing.
that to
 many thousands of them was the last of their existence, 
The morning of
form in order of
 battle on the plain, 
[See CLINTON's "Fasti Hellenici." The battle was
 fought eleven days after an eclipse of the moon, 
which gives the means
 of fixing the precise date]
on ALEXANDER's side; and few battle-fields have witnessed more consummate generalship than
 was now displayed by the Macedonian king, 
There were no natural barriers
 by which he could protect his flanks, 
 and not only was he certain to
 be overlapped on either wing by the vast lines of the PERSIAn army, 
 there was imminent risk of their circling round him and charging him in
 the rear, 
therefore,
 a second or reserve line, 
 to detach troops to either flank, 
 as the enemy's movements might
 necessitate: and thus, 
while Parmenio commanded on
 the left.
 Such was the general nature of the disposition which ALEXANDER made
But we have in Arrian the details of the position of each
 brigade and regiment, 
 and as we know that these details were taken from
 the journals of Macedonian generals, 
 and to read the names and stations of King ALEXANDER's generals and
 colonels in this the greatest of his battles.
 The 8 troops of THE—ROYAL—horse-guards formed the right of
 ALEXANDER's line, 
Sopolis,
 Heracleides, 
Philotas was general
 of the whole division, 
Then came the shield-bearing infantry: Nicanor
 was their general, 
Coenus's
 brigade was on the right, 
nearest to the shield-bearers, 
 next
 to this stood the brigade of Perdiccas, 
then
 Polysperchon's, 
but which was now
 commanded by Simmias, 
as Amynias had been sent to Macedonia to levy
 recruits, 
under the command of
 Craterus, 
Next to Craterus's infantry were placed the cavalry regiments
 of THE—ALLIES, 
The Messalian cavalry,
 commanded by PHILIPPus, 
held the extreme left of
 the whole army, 
The whole left wing was entrusted to the command of
which was the strongest and best amid all the Thessalian
 horse-regiments.
which were drafted for this purpose from
 each of the brigades of their phalanx, 
The officers in command of
 this corps were ordered to be ready to face about, 
if the enemy should
 succeed in gaining the rear of THE—ARMY, 
On the right of this reserve
 of infantry, 
Cleander's regiment
 of foot, 
He also placed in this part of his army Menidas's squadron of
Menidas was ordered to
 watch if the enemy's cavalry tried to turn the flank, 
so take
 them in flank themselves, 
A similar force was arranged on the left of
 the second line for the same purpose, 
Coeranus's regiment of the cavalry of the Greek
 allies, 
 The extreme left of the second line in this quarter was held by
 Andromachus's cavalry, 
A DIVISION—OF—Thracian infantry was left in guard
 of the camp, 
 intention of warding off the charge of THE—ARMED chariots, 
[Kleber's
 arrangement of his troops at —BATTLE—OF—Heliopolis, 
See
 Thiers's "Histoire du KONSULat," &c, 
by the chosen—BAND—of officers who were round his person, 
ALEXANDER took his own station, 
 his custom was, 
in the right wing, 
at the HEAD—OF—his cavalry: and when
 all the arrangements for the battle were complete, 
his generals were
 fully instructed how to act in each probable emergency, 
he began to lead
 his men towards the enemy.
 It was ever his custom to expose his life freely in battle, 
 emulate the personal prowess of his great ancestor, 
Achilles, 
Perhaps in
 the bold enterprise of conquering PERSIA, 
it was politic for ALEXANDER
 to raise his army's daring to the utmost by the example of his own
 heroic valour: and, 
in his subsequent campaigns, 
the love of the
 excitement, 
of "the rapture of the strife," may have made him, 
like
 Murat, 
continue from choice a custom which he commenced from duty.
 But he never suffered the ardour of the soldier to make him lose the
 coolness of the general, 
 and at Arbela, 
in particular, 
he showed that he
 could act up to his favourite Homeric maxim.
 Great reliance had been placed by the PERSIAn king on the effects of
 the scythe-bearing chariots, 
It was designed to launch these against the
 Macedonian phalanx, 
 which it was hoped would find the ranks of the spearmen disordered by
 the rush of the chariots, 
easily destroy this most formidable part
 of ALEXANDER's force, 
In front, 
of the PERSIAn centre, 
 Darius took his station, 
which it was supposed the phalanx would
so as to
 allow the chariots to charge over it with their full sweep and speed.
ALEXANDER found that the
 front of his whole line barely equalled the front of the PERSIAn centre,
 so that he was outflanked on his right by the entire left, 
 wing of the
 enemy, 
His tactics were
 to assail some one point of the hostile army, 
gain a decisive
 advantage, 
 while he refused, 
as far as possible, 
the encounter along the
 rest of the line, 
He therefore inclined his order of march to the right
 so as to enable his right wing and centre to come into collision with
 the enemy on as favourable terms as possible though the manoeuvre might
 in some respects compromise his left.
 The effect of this oblique movement was to bring the phalanx and his
 own wing nearly beyond the limits of the ground which THE—PERSIANS had
 prepared for THE—OPERATIONs of the chariots, 
 and Darius, 
fearing to
 lose the benefit of this arm against the most important parts of the
 Macedonian force, 
who were
 drawn up on his extreme left, 
to charge round upon ALEXANDER's right
Against these assailants
 ALEXANDER sent from his second line Menidas's cavalry, 
As these proved
 too few to make head against the enemy, 
he ordered Ariston also from the
 second line with his light horse, 
Cleander with his foot, 
in support
 of Menidas, 
The Bactrians and Scythians now began to give way, 
 Darius reinforced them by the mass of Bactrian cavalry from his main
The Bactrians and
 Scythians were numerous, 
were better armed than the horseman
 under Menidas and Ariston, 
 and the loss at 1, 
was heaviest on the
 Macedonian side, 
But still THE—EUropean cavalry stood the charge of the
by their superior discipline, 
by acting in
 squadrons that supported each other, 
instead of fighting in a confused
 mass like the barbarians, 
the Macedonians broke their adversaries, 
[The best explanation of this may be found
 in NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's acCOUNT—OF—the cavalry fights between THE—FRENCH and
 the Mamelukes:--"Two Mamelukes were able to make head against 3
 Frenchmen, 
better mounted, 
better
 trained, 
 they had two pair of pistols, 
a blunderbuss, 
a carbine, 
 helmet with a vizor, 
a coat of mail, 
 they had several horses, 
 several attendants on foot, 
One hundred cuirassiers, 
however were not
 afraid of one hundred Mamelukes, 
 3 hundred could beat, 
 an equal
 number, 
one thousand could easily put to the rout fifteen hundred,
order, 
evolutions!  
Leclerc and
 Lasalle presented their men to the Mamelukes in several lines, 
When the
 Arabs were on the point of overwhelming the 1., 
the second came to
 its assistance on the right and left, 
 wheeled, 
 this moment
 was always seized upon to charge them, 
they were uniformly
 broken."--MONTHOLON'S HISTORY—OF—THE CAPTIVITY OF NAPOLÉON—iv—70]
vast numbers of THE—PERSIANS
 threw themselves, 
or were hurried by others, 
into the rapid stream, 
 perished in its waters, 
had ridden on through
 Arbela without halting, 
ALEXANDER reached that city on the next day, 
 made himself master of all Darius's treasure and stores, 
 but the PERSIAn
 king unfortunately for himself, 
 he had only escaped to perish by the treachery of his Bactrian satrap,
 Bessus.
 A few days after the battle ALEXANDER entered BABYLON, 
the field of Chillianwallah;  
 and he was yet to precede THE—QUEEN—OF—ENGLAND in annexing the Punjaub to the dominions of an European sovereign, 
 crisis of his career was reached;  
 the great object of his mission was accomplished;  
which once menaced all the nations of the earth with subjection, 
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN —BATTLE—OF—ARBELA AND —BATTLE—OF—THE—METAURUS.
_03300000            The Lacedaemonians endeavour to create a RISING—IN—Greece against the Macedonian power;  
 The Lacedaemonians are defeated by Antipater, 
 and The Lacedaemonians their king, 
_03300000_03270000   ALEXANDER's campaigns in Upper Asia, 
taking
 Bactra, 
or Zariaspa, 
(now Balkh), 
THE—CHIEF CITY—OF—that province, 
In Margiana he FOUNDED another Alexandria.
the position of which must have been on the right bank of the Indus, 
 327, 
326, 
ALEXANDER marches through, 
He defeats Porus, 
 he commences the descent of the Indus, 
On his march he attacks and subdues several Indian tribes, 
among others the Malli;  
 —IN—THE—storming of whose capital (Mooltan), 
He directs his admiral, 
Nearchus, 
"In the tenth year after he had crossed the Hellespont, 
entered BABYLON;  
In the bloom of youthful manhood, 
he paused from the fiery speed of his earlier course; and 
 for the 1, 
time gave the nations an opportunity of offering their homage before his throne, 
They came from all the extremities of the earth to propitiate his anger, 
to celebrate his greatness, 
History may allow us to think that ALEXANDER and a ROMAn ambassador did meet at BABYLON;  
successful;  but 
the return of some of ALEXANDER's veterans from Asia enables Antipater to prevail over them.
_03170000_02890000   Agathocles is tyrant of Syracuse;
 carries on repeated wars with THE—CARTHAGINIANS;  
 in the course of which (_0311) he invades Africa, 
after all the heirs of ALEXANDER had been murdered, 
his principal surviving generals assume THE—TITLE—OF—king, 
 Ptolemy, 
 Lysimachus, 
 ANTIPATER was now dead, 
but 
_03010000            his son Cassander succeeded to his power in Macedonia and Greece.
SELEUCUS and Lysimachus defeat Antigonus at Ipsus, 
Antigonus is killed in the battle.
is assassinated.
  He extended his dominion in India beyond the limits reached by ALEXANDER.
 SELEUCUS had some sparks of his great master's genius in promoting civilization and commerce, 
 Under his successors, 
_01250000            a separate dynasty of Greek kings ruled there —J—IM, when it was overthrown by the Scythian tribes.
_02500000            Parthia threw off its allegiance to the Seleucidae, 
 the powerful Parthian kingdom, 
 afterwards the powerful Parthian kingdom proved so formidable a foe to ROMe,
the powerful Parthian kingdom absorbed nearly all the provinces west of THE—EUphrates, 
that had obeyed the 1, 
SELEUCUS.
 BEFORE —BATTLE—OF—IPSUS, 
a PERSIAn prince of the blood-royal of the Achaemenidae, 
had escaped to Pontus, 
a PERSIAn prince of the blood-royal of the Achaemenidae FOUNDED there THE—KINGDOM—OF— that name.
when limited to SYRIA, 
PALESTINE, 
long survived;  
 the most important kingdom formed by a general of ALEXANDER was that of the Ptolemies in Egypt.
 The throne of Macedonia was long and obstinately contended for by Cassander, 
others;  
 The throne of Macedonia at last was secured by THE—DYNASTY of Antigonus Gonatas, 
 The old republics of southern Greece suffered severely
             —DURING—the se tumults, 
 the only Greek states that showed any strength and spirit were the cities of the Achaean league, 
 THE—AETOLIANs, 
 the islanders of RHODES.
_02900000            ROMe had now thoroughly subdued the Samnites and 
_02900000            ROMe had now thoroughly subdued the Etruscans, 
_02900000            ROMe had had gained numerous victories over the Cisalpine GAULS.
ROMe Wishing to confirm her dominion in Lower ITALY, 
 ROMe became entangled in a war with Pyrrhus, 
fourth KING—OF—Epirus was called over by the Tarentines to aid them, 
fourth KING—OF—Epirus was at 1, 
_02750000            —J—IM, Pyrrhus, 
fourth KING—OF—Epirus was defeated by THE—ROMAN—legions in a pitched battle, 
fourth KING—OF—Epirus returned to Greece, 
"ROMe becomes mistress of all ITALY from the Rubicon to the Straits of MESSINA."
PUNIC—WAR primary cause was the desire of both THE—ROMANs and THE—CARTHAGINIANS to possess themselves of Sicily.
 THE—ROMANs successfully compete with the marine of CARTHAGE.
 in the Great Exhibition at Hyde Park a model of a piratical galley of Labuan, 
form a bridge for boarders, 
 It is worth while to compare this with the account in POLYBIUS of the boarding bridges 
 which THE—ROMAN—admiral Dullius, 
affixed to the masts of his galleys and 
 by means of which he won his great victory over the Carthaginian fleet]
             —DURING—the latter half of THE—WAR, 
THE—MILITARY genius of HAMILCAR—BARCA sustains the Carthaginian cause in Sicily.
 At the end of twenty-four years, 
though 
 their aggregate loss in ships and men had been less than that sustained by THE—ROMANs since—THE—BEGINNING—OF THE—WAR, 
 Sicily becomes a ROMAn province.
_02400000_02180000   The Carthaginian mercenaries who had been brought back from Sicily to Africa, 
nearly succeed in destroying CARTHAGE, 
HAMILCAR—BARCA crushes The Carthaginian mercenaries, 
ROMe takes from her the ISLAND of Sardinia, 
 HAMILCAR—BARCA forms the project of obtaining compensation by conquests in SPAIN, 
HAMILCAR—BARCA thus enabling CARTHAGE to renew the struggle with ROMe.
 HAMILCAR—BARCA takes HANNIBAL (then a child) to SPAIN with him, 
 HAMILCAR—BARCA and, 
HAMILCAR—BARCA his brother, 
win great part of southern SPAIN to the Carthaginian interest, 
_02210000            HANNIBAL obtains the command of the Carthaginian armies in SPAIN, 
_02210000            HANNIBAL being then 26—YEARS—OLD, 
 HANNIBAL attacks Saguntum, 
a city on the EBRO in alliance with ROMe, 
which is the immediate pretext for the second PUNIC—WAR.
             —DURING this interval ROMe had to sustain a storm from the north.
 The Cisalpine GAULS, 
formed an alliance with one of the fiercest tribes of their brethren north of the Alps, 
 began a furioUS—WAR against THE—ROMAN—S, 
 THE—ROMANs gave them several severe defeats, 
 took from them part of their territories near the Po, 
 It was on this occasion that THE—ROMAN—COLONIES of Cremona and Placentia were FOUNDED,
 the latter of which did such essential service to ROMe —IN—THE—second PUNIC—WAR,
 by the resistance which it made to THE—ARMY of HASDRUBAL, 
 A muster-roll was made in this WAR—OF—the effective MILITARY force of THE—ROMANs themselves, 
 of those Italian states that were subject to them, 
 The return showed a force of seven hundred thousand foot, 
 CHAPTER—IV, 
-- 
 Qui primus alma risit adorea;  
 Dirus per urbes Afer ut Italas,
 Per Siculas equitavit undas.--HORATIUS, 
iv, 
Od, 
VOLUME—III—PAGE—387]
which then made ITALY the arena of their oft-renewed contest for pre-eminence.
frequent references are made to
 the records of the voyages of another celebrated Carthaginian admiral,
 Himilco, 
Our own
 islands are mentioned by Himilco as the lands of the Hiberni and the
 Albioni, 
It is indeed certain that THE—CARTHAGINIANS frequented the
 Cornish coast (as the Phoenicians had done before them) for the purpose
 of procuring tin, 
 and there is every reason to believe that they sailed
 as far as the coasts of the Baltic for amber, 
When it is remembered that
 the mariner's compass was unknown in those ages, 
the boldness and skill
 of the seamen of CARTHAGE, 
may be
 paralleled with any achievements that the HISTORY—OF—modern navigation
 and commerce can supply.
 In their Atlantic voyages along the African shores, 
THE—CARTHAGINIANS
 followed the double object of trade and colonization, 
The numerous
 settlements that were planted by them along the coast from MOROcco to
 Senegal, 
provided for THE—NEEDY MEMBERS—OF—the constantly-increasing
 population of a great commercial capital, 
 and also strengthened the
 influence which CARTHAGE exercised among the tribes of the African
 coast, 
Besides her fleets, 
her caravans gave her a large and lucrative
 trade with the native Africans, 
 nor must we —LIMIT our belief of the
 extent of the Carthaginian trade with the tribes of Central and Western
 Africa, 
by the narrowness of the commercial intercourse which civilized
 nations of modern times have been able to create in those regions.
 Although essentially a mercantile and seafaring people, 
 whole of their territory was cultivated like a garden, 
The fertility of
 the soil repaid the skill and toil bestowed on it, 
 and every invader,
 from Agathocles to SCIPIO—AEMILIANUS, 
was struck with admiration at
 the rich pasture-lands carefully irrigated, 
 thriving villages, 
the populous towns, 
the splendid villas of the
 wealthy Carthaginians, 
through which his march lay, 
as long as he was on
 Carthaginian ground.
 but they were by no means disposed to relinquish to those rivals the
 commerce and the dominion of the coasts of the Mediterranean westward of
—FOR—CENTURIES THE—CARTHAGINIANS strove to make themselves masters
 of the islands that lie between ITALY and SPAIN, 
They acquired the
 Balearic islands, 
where the principal harbour, 
Port Mahon, 
still bears
 the name of the Carthaginian admiral, 
They succeeded in reducing the
 greater part of Sardinia, 
 but Sicily could never be brought into their
They repeatedly invaded that ISLAND, 
[VOLUME—II—PAGE—447, 
Wesseling's
 ed] 
 mentions the Phoenicians who dwelt in CARTHAGE: next, 
he speaks of the
 Liby-Phoenicians, 
This is the instance of the officer sent by HANNIBAL to Sicily, 
after the FALL—OF—Syracuse;  
calls Myttinus the Libyan, 
[Lib, 
xxv, 
and it is expressly mentioned what indignation was felt by the Carthaginian commanders in the ISLAND that
 where the nation has been merely enkindled for a while by a great man's spirit, 
the light passes away with him who communicated it;  
 and the nation, 
the body is cold and stiff as before, 
when HANNIBAL must, 
 the isolated Phoenician CITY—OF—CARTHAGE was fitted to receive and to consolidate the civilization of Greece, 
 to bind together barbarians of every race and language into an organized empire, 
cause such deep regret that that volume should have been the last, 
 It was in —THE—SPRING—OF
_02070000            that HASDRUBAL, 
after a march
 conducted with great judgment and little loss, 
through the interior of Gaul and the passes of the Alps, 
appeared in THE—COUNTRY that now is the
 north of Lombardy, 
at the HEAD—OF—troops which he had partly brought out of SPAIN, 
partly levied among the GAULS and Ligurians on his way.
 —AT—THIS—TIME HANNIBAL with his unconquered, 
had been eleven years in ITALY, 
executing with strenuous ferocity
 the vow of hatred to ROMe which had been sworn by him while yet a child at the bidding of his father, 
Hamilcar, 
had trained
 up his 3 sons, 
But HANNIBAL's latter campaigns had not
 been signalised by any such great victories as marked the 1, 
ever
 highest in disaster and danger, 
 the merciless blows which "the dire African" dealt her in rapid
 succession at Trebia, 
at Thrasymene, 
at CANNAE, 
Her population was
 thinned by repeated slaughter in the field, 
 POVERTY and actual scarcity
 wore down the survivors, 
their
 vineyards, 
 many of her allies went over to the invader's side, 
 and new
 clouds of foreign war threatened her from Macedonia and Gaul, 
But ROMe
 receded not, 
Rich and poor among her citizens vied with each other in
 devotion to their country, 
The wealthy placed their stores, 
all
 placed their lives at THE—STATE's disposal, 
And though HANNIBAL could
 not be driven out of ITALY, 
though every year brought its sufferings and
 sacrifices, 
ROMe felt that her constancy had not been exerted in vain.
 If she was weakened by the continual strife, 
so was HANNIBAL also, 
in his "HISTORY—OF—THE—WORLD," BOOK—V, 
CHAPTER—III—SECTION—11]
 It is clear that —J—IM, 208 B.C., 
HASDRUBAL outmanoeuvred
 PUBLIUS—SCIPIO, 
who held the command of THE—ROMAN—forces in SPAIN, 
NERO had served
             —DURING—the preceding years of THE—WAR,
body of regular troops that had ever traversed the
 regions, 
 diminished by more than half             —DURING twelve years, 
 the advanced troops of HASDRUBAL;  
KONSUL
which was to be under the immediate command of THE—KONSUL—LIVIUS,
others gaining victories over HANNIBAL in ITALY,
 must be all fabrications of ROMAn vanity, 
POLYBIUS states (—LIBER—xv, sec, 16) that HANNIBAL was never defeated before —BATTLE—OF—Zama;  
 and in another —PASSAGE (BOOK—IX—CHAPTER—3) he mentions that after the defeats
             —DURING—the preceding
 afternoon, 
sent messengers to ROMe, 
with orders to the local authorities to bring stores
 of, 
 provisions and refreshments of every kind to the road-side, 
[Livy—LIBER—xxvii—CHAPTER—45] 
[Livy——LIBER—XXVII—CHAPTER—45] 
 while innumerable
 troops of Numidian horse-men, 
formed the wings, 
 the van was
 composed of Balearic slingers, 
 the hosts that fought for CARTHAGE, 
 of them to be provided with a sharp iron spike and a mallet;  
 and had given orders that every beast that became unmanageable, 
by driving the spike into the vertebra at the junction of the head and the spine, 
HASDRUBAL's elephants were ten in number, 
We have no trustworthy information as to the amount of his infantry, 
 The tactic of THE—ROMAN—legions had NOT—YET acquired the perfection which THE—ROMAN—legions received from THE—MILITARY genius of Marius, 
_01040000_01010000   —DURING the PERIOD—OF—Marius his prolonged KONSULship,
_01040000_01010000   —while Marius was training his army against the Cimbri and the Teutons] 
We possess in
 that great work an acCOUNT—OF—THE—ROMAN—legions at the end of the
 serving for a general description of THE—ROMAN—army in its PERIOD—OF—perfection;  
This was
 termed the quincunx order, 
Niebuhr considers that this arrangement
 enabled the legion to keep up a shower of javelins on the enemy for some
 considerable time, 
position, 
 a
 movement which, 
could be
 executed without losing a moment, 
Thus one line succeeded the other in
 the front till it was time to draw the swords, 
when it was found
 expedient, 
since the stores of pila were surely not confined to the
 two which each soldier took with him into battle.
 "The same change must have taken place in fighting with the sword; which, 
was anything but
 a confused MELEE, 
 lines as described above was by no means impracticable, 
 and in the
 absence of the deafening noise of gunpowder, 
it cannot have had even any
 difficulty with trained troops."
acted as a
 reserve, 
who were called the
 Triarii, 
Their arms were the same as those of the Principes and Hastati; except that each Triarian carried a spear instead of javelins, 
The rest
 of the legion consisted of light armed troops, 
 The cavalry of each legion was at this period about 3 hundred
 strong, 
but their numerical proportion
 of cavalry was much larger.
 Such was the nature of the forces that advanced on THE—ROMAN—SIDE to the
 —BATTLE—OF—the Metaurus, 
Livius the left,
 and the PRAETOR Porcius had the command of the centre, 
"Both ROMAns and
 Carthaginians well understood how much depended upon the fortune of this
Only
 THE—ROMANs herein seemed to have had the better in conceit and opinion,
 ACCORDING—TO—this presumption came Livius the KONSUL, 
by whom he was so
 sharply entertained that victory seemed very doubtful, 
The Africans and
 Spaniards were stout soldiers, 
well acquainted with the manner
 of THE—ROMAN—fight, 
not
 accustomed to give ground, 
or were able now
 to do, 
Porcius found
 great opposition, 
prevailed
 little or nothing, 
they were exceedingly
 troubled by the elephants, 
as THE—ROMAN—ensigns were driven to fall back, 
 all this
 while CLAUDIUS NERO, 
but out of
 danger, 
did the more boldly and fiercely make impression on the other
 side upon the left wing of THE—ROMANs." 
["HISTORIE—of THE—WORLD," by Sir
 Walter Raleigh—PAGE—946]
[Carthagini jam non ego nuntios Mittam superbos, 
occidit Spes omnis et fortuna nostri Nominis, 
 ROMe was almost delirious with joy: 
[See the splendid description in Livy—LIBER—xxvii—SECTION—50, 
51]
 so agonising had been the suspense with which the battle's verdict on that great issue of a nation's life and death had been awaited;  
 so overpowering was the sudden reaction to the consciousness of security, 
to the full glow of glory and success.
 From the time when it had been known at ROMe that the armies were in
 presence of each other, 
THE—PEOPLE had never ceased to throng the forum, 
the Conscript Fathers had been in permanent sitting at THE—SENATE house.
 Ever and anon a fearful whisper crept among the crowd of a second CANNAE won by a second HANNIBAL, 
Then came truer rumours that THE—DAY was ROMe's;  
 but THE—PEOPLE were sick at heart, 
heeded them not, 
 shrines were thronged with trembling women, 
who seemed to weary heaven
 with prayers to shield them from the brutal Gaul and the savage African.
 Presently THE—REPORTs of good fortune assumed a more definite form, 
It
 was said that two Narnian horseman had ridden from THE—EAST into the
 ROMAn camp of observation in Umbria, 
had brought tidings of the
 utter slaughter of the foe, 
Such news seemed too good to be true,
 Men tortured their neighbours and themselves by demonstrating its
 improbability and by ingeniously criticising its evidence, 
Soon,
a letter came from LUCIUS Manlius Acidinus, 
who commanded in
 Umbria, 
who announced THE—ARRIVAL—OF—the Narnian horsemen in his
 camp, 
THE—INTELLIGENCE which they brought thither, 
The letter was 1, 
laid before THE—SENATE, 
then before the ASSEMBLY—OF—the
 people, 
The excitement grew more and more vehement, 
The letter was read
 and re-read aloud to thousands, 
It confirmed the previous rumour, 
 even this was insufficient to allay the feverish anxiety that thrilled
 through every breast in ROMe, 
The letter might be a forgery: the Narnian
 horseman might be traitors or impostors, 
"We must see officers from the
 army that fought, 
or hear despatches from THE—KONSULS themselves, 
 then only will we believe." Such was THE—PUBLIC sentiment, 
though some
 of more hopeful nature ALREADY permitted themselves a foretaste of joy.
 At length came news that officers who really had been in the battle were
 near at hand, 
Forthwith the whole city poured forth to meet them, 
each
 person coveting to be the 1, 
to receive with his own eyes and ears
 convincing proofs of the reality of such a deliverance, 
One vast throng
 of human beings filled the road from ROMe to the Milvian bridge, 
 3 officers, 
LUCIUS Veturius Pollio, 
Publius LICINIUS Vasus, 
 Quintus Caecilius Metellus came riding on, 
making their way slowly
 through the living sea around them, 
As they advanced, 
each told the
 successive waves of eager questioners that ROMe was victorious, 
"We have
 destroyed HASDRUBAL and his army, 
our legions are safe, 
our KONSULs
 are unhurt." Each happy listener, 
who caught the welcome sounds from
 their lips, 
retired to communicate his own joy to others, 
became
 himself the centre of an anxious and inquiring group, 
When the officers
 had, 
with much difficulty, 
reached THE—SENATE house, 
the crowd was
 with still greater difficulty put back from entering and mingling with
 the Conscript Fathers, 
the despatches of Livius and NERO were produced
 and read aloud, 
From THE—SENATE house the officers proceeded to the
 public assembly, 
where the despatches were read AGAIN, 
 and then the
 senior officer, 
LUCIUS Veturius, 
gave in his own words a fuller detail
 of how went the fight, 
When he had done speaking to THE—PEOPLE,
 an universal shout of rapture rent the air, 
The vast assembly then
 separated: some hastening to the temples to find in devotion a vent for
 the overflowing excitement of their hearts, 
 others seeking their homes
 to gladden their wives and children with the good news, 
to feast
 their own eyes with the sight of the loved ones, 
who now, 
 safe from outrage and slaughter, 
THE—SENATE ordained a thanksgiving of
 3 days for the great deliverance which had been vouchsafed to ROMe; and —THROUGHOUT that period the temples were incessantly crowded with
 exulting worshippers, 
 and the matrons, 
with their children round them,
 in their gayest attire, 
with joyous aspects and voices, 
offered
 grateful praises to the immortal gods, 
as if all apprehension of evil
 were over, 
THE—WAR were ALREADY ended.
 With the revival of confidence came also the revival of activity in
 traffic and commerce, 
in all the busy intercourse of daily life.
 A numbing load was taken off each heart and brain, 
once more men
 bought and sold, 
formed their plans fleely, 
as had been done before
 the dire Carthaginians came into ITALY, 
HANNIBAL was, 
certainly, 
still in the land;  
 but all felt that his power to destroy was broken, 
that the crisis of THE—WAR-fever was past, 
The Metaurus, 
had not only determined THE—EVENT of the strife between ROMe and CARTHAGE, 
but it
 had ensured to ROMe two centuries more of almost unchanged conquest.
 HANNIBAL did actually, 
with almost superhuman skill, 
retain his hold on
 Southern ITALY for a few years longer, 
but THE—IMPERIAL—city, 
her allies, 
were no longer in danger from his arms;  
after HANNIBAL's downfall, 
the great MILITARY republic of THE—ANCIENT world met in her career of conquest no other worthy competitor, 
Byron has termed NERO's march "unequalled," and, 
in the magnitude of its consequences, 
it is so, 
Viewed only as a MILITARY exploit, 
it remains unparalleled save by
 Marlborough's bold march from FLANDERS to the Danube, 
IN—THE—CAMPAIGN
 of Blenheim, 
perhaps also by THE—ARCH—DUKE—CHARLES's lateral march
 in 1796, 
by which he overwhelmed THE—FRENCH under Jourdain, 
then,
 driving MOREAU through the Black Forest and ACROSS—THE—RHINE, 
for a
 while freed GERMANY from her invaders.
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN 
AND
00090000             ARMININIUS'S VICTORY OVER THE—ROMAN—LEGIONS UNDER VARUS, 
_02050000_02010000   RÖMER—KONSUL—PUBLIUS—SCIPIO is made  
carries THE—WAR into Africa.
 PUBLIUS—SCIPIO gains several victories in Africa, 
 THE—CARTHAGINIANS recall HANNIBAL from ITALY to oppose PUBLIUS—SCIPIO, 
_02010000            —BATTLE—OF—Zama, 
HANNIBAL is defeated, 
_02010000            CARTHAGE sues for peace, 
_02010000            End of the second PUNIC—WAR, 
leaving ROMe confirmed in the dominion of ITALY, 
Sicily, 
Corsica, 
 also mistress of great part of SPAIN, 
virtually predominant in NORTH—AFRICA.
_02000000            ROMe makes war upon PHILIP, 
KING—OF—Macedonia, 
_02000000            ROMe pretends to take the Greek cities of the Achaean league and THE—AETOLIANs under her protection as allies, 
_01980000            PHILIP, 
KING—OF—Macedonia is defeated by the proKONSUL Flaminius at Cynocephalae, 
;  and
KING—OF—Macedonia begs for peace, 
_01980000            The Macedonian influence is now completely destroyed in Greece, 
_01980000            THE—ROMAN—influence is now established in Greece
_01980000            though ROMe nominally acknowledged the independence of the Greek cities.
_01940000            ROMe makes war upon Antiochus, 
KING—OF—SYRIA, 
_01900000            Antiochus, 
KING—OF—SYRIA is completely defeated at —BATTLE—OF—Magnesia, 
KING—OF—SYRIA is glad to accept peace on conditions which leave him dependent upon ROMe.
_02000000_01900000   "Thus, 
within the short space of 10—YEARS, 
was laid the foundation of THE—ROMAN—authority in THE—EAST, 
_02000000_01900000   in THE—EAST the general state of affairs entirely changed, 
_01900000            If ROMe was NOT—YET the ruler, 
she was at least the arbitress of THE—WORLD from THE—ATLANTIC to THE—EUphrates, 
_01900000            The power of the 3 principal states was so completely humbled, 
that they durst not, 
without the permission of ROMe, 
begin any new war;  
_02010000            the fourth, 
had ALREADY, 
in  
             —THE —YEAR , 
placed herself under THE—GUARDIANship of ROMe;   and
_01900000            the lesser powers followed of themselves:
_01900000            esteeming it an honour to be called THE—ALLIES of ROMe, 
_01900000            With this name the nations were lulled into security, 
brought under THE—ROMAN—yoke;  
_01900000            the new political —SYSTEM of ROMe was FOUNDED and strengthened partly by exciting and supporting the weaker states against the stronger, 
however
_01900000            unjust the cause of THE—FORMER—might be, 
partly by factions which she found means to raise in every state, 
even the smallest."--(HEEREN.)
_01720000            War renewed between Macedon and ROMe, 
_01680000            Decisive DEFEAT—OF—Perses, 
the Macedonian king, 
by Paulus AEmilius at Pydna, 
_01680000            Destruction of the Macedonian monarchy.
_01500000            ROMe oppresses THE—CARTHAGINIANS  -TILL they are driven to take up arms, 
_01500000            III, 
PUNIC—WAR begins,
_01440000            CARTHAGE is taken and destroyed by SCIPIO—AEMILIANUS, 
_01440000            the Carthaginian territory is made a ROMAn province.
_01440000            IN—THE—SAME—YEAR in which CARTHAGE falls, 
_01440000            Corinth is stormed by THE—ROMAN—army under Mummius, 
_01440000            The Achaean league had been goaded into hostilities with ROMe, 
by means similar to those employed against CARTHAGE, 
_01440000            The greater part of Southern Greece is made a ROMAn province, 
under the name of Achaia.
_01330000            Numantium is destroyed by SCIPIO—AEMILIANUS, 
_02000000            —BEGAN IN "THE—WAR—AGAINST—THE—SPANIARDS, 
of all the nations subdued by THE—ROMAN—S, 
defended their liberty with the greatest obstinacy, 
_02000000_02060000   6—YEARS after the total expulsion of THE—CARTHAGINIANS from their Spaniards country,
_02060000            It was exceedingly obstinate, 
partly from the natural state of THE—COUNTRY, 
which was thickly populated, 
where every place became a fortress;  
 partly from the courage of the inhabitants;   but 
 at last all, 
owing to the peculiar policy of THE—ROMAN—S,
 THE—ROMANs yielded to employ their allies to subdue other nations, 
This war continued, 
almost without interruption, 
from  
             —THE —YEAR 
02000000             to 133, 
was for the most part carried on —TIME—AT—THE—SAME in HISPANIA Citerior, 
in HISPANIA Citerior the Celtiberi were the most formidable adversaries, 
 in HISPANIA—ULTERIOR, 
where the Lusitani were equally powerful, 
Hostilities were at THE—HIGHest
 pitch in 195, 
under Cato, 
who reduced HISPANIA Citerior to a state
 of tranquillity in 185—179, 
when the Celtiberi were attacked in their native territory;   and 
_01550000_01500000   when THE—ROMANs in both provinces were so often beaten, 
that nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than to be sent there, 
The extortions and perfidy of Servius Galba placed Viriathus, 
01460000             ,
at the HEAD—OF—his nations, 
the Lusitani:
soon extended itself to HISPANIA CITERIOR,
_014300000             HISPANIA CITERIOR where many nations, 
particularly the Numantines, 
took up arms against ROMe, 
 Viriathus, 
sometimes victorious and sometimes defeated, 
was never more formidable than in the moment of defeat;  
 because Viriathus knew how to take advantage of his knowledge of THE—COUNTRY and of the dispositions of his countrymen, 
_01400000            After Viriathus his murder, 
caused by the treachery of Saepio, 
LUSITANIA was subdued;  
 but the Numantine war became still more violent,
 and the Numantines compelled THE—KONSUL—MANCINUS to a disadvantageous
 treaty, 
137, 
When SCIPIO, 
01330000             ,
put an end to this war,
 SPAIN was certainly tranquil;  
 the northern parts, 
were still unsubdued, 
though THE—ROMANs penetrated as far as Galatia."--HEEREN.
_01340000            —COMMENCEMENT of THE—REVOLUTIONary century at ROMe, 
I.E, 
from the time of the excitement produced by the attempts made by the Gracchi to reform the commonwealth, 
to 
_00310000            —BATTLE—OF—ACTIUM established OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR as sole master of THE—ROMAN—WORLD.
 —THROUGHOUT this period ROMe was engaged in important foreign wars, 
most of which procured large accessions to her territory.
_01180000_01060000   —THE—JUGURTHINE—WAR,, 
_01180000_01060000   NUMIDIA is conquered, 
made a ROMAn province.
_01130000_01010000   THE GREAT AND TERRIBLE WAR—OF—THE—CIMBRI—AND—TEUTONES AGAINST ROME, 
These nations of northern warriors slaughter several ROMAn armies in Gaul, 
_01020000            attempt to penetrate into ITALY,
_01020000            THE—MILITARY genius of Marius here saves his country;  
_01020000            Marius defeats the Teutones near Aix, 
in PROVENCE;   and
 in the following year 
_01010000            Marius destroys THE—ARMY of the Cimbri, 
who had passed the Alps, 
near Vercellae.
_00910000_00880000   THE—WAR—OF—THE—ITALIAN—ALLIES—AGAINST—ROME, 
This was caused by the refusal of ROMe to concede to them the rights of ROMAn citizenship.
 After a sanguine struggle, 
ROMe gradually grants it.
_00890000_00860000   1, 
WAR—OF—THE—ROMANs against Mithridates the Great, 
king of
 Pontus, 
who had overrun Asia Minor, 
Macedonia, 
Greece, 
Sylla defeats his armies, 
forces him to withdraw his forces from Europe, 
Sylla returns to ROMe to carry on the CIVIL—WAR against the son and partisans of Marius, 
Sylla makes himself Dictator.
_00740000_00640000   The last Mithridatic wars, 
Lucullus, 
after him POMPEIUS,
 command against the great —KING—OF—Pontus, 
 who at last is poisoned by his son, 
 while designing to raise THE—WARlike tribes of the Danube against ROMe, 
 to invade ITALY from the north-east, 
 Great Asiatic conquests of THE—ROMANs.
 Besides THE—ANCIENT province of Pergamus,
 the maritime countries of Bithynia, 
 nearly all Paphlagonia and 
are formed into a ROMAn province, 
under the name of Bithynia;  
 while on the southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia form another, 
under the name of Cilicia;  
 Phoenicia and SYRIA compose a third, 
under the name of SYRIA, 
On the other hand, 
Great Armenia is left to Tigranes;  
 Cappodocia to Ariobarzanes;  
 the Bosphorus to Pharnaces;  
 Judaea to Hyrcanus;  
 and some other small states are also given to petty princes, 
all of whom remain dependent on ROMe.
_00580000_00500000   CAESAR conquers Gaul.
_00540000            CRASSUS attacks THE—PARTHIANs with a ROMAn army, 
but is overthrown and killed at Carrhae in Mesopotamia, 
_00540000            CRASSUS His lieutenant CASSIUS collects the wrecks of THE—ARMY, 
prevents THE—PARTHIANs from conquering SYRIA.
_00490000_00450000   The CIVIL—WAR—BETWEEN—CAESAR and the Pompeian party, 
CAESAR drives POMPEIUS out of ITALY, 
conquers his enemy's forces in SPAIN, 
then 
passes into Greece, 
where POMPEIUS and the other aristocratic chiefs had assembled a large army, 
CAESAR gives them a decisive defeat at the great —BATTLE—OF—Pharsalia, 
POMPEIUS flies for refuge to Alexandria,
 where POMPEIUS is assassinated, 
CAESAR, 
who had followed him thither, 
is involved in a war with THE—EGYPTIANS,
 in which he is finally victorious, 
The celebrated Cleopatra is made QUEEN—OF—Egypt, 
CAESAR next marches into Pontus, 
defeats the son of Mithridates, 
who had taken part IN—THE—WAR—AGAINST—him, 
He then proceeds to THE—ROMAN—province of Africa, 
where some of the Pompeian chiefs had established themselves,
 aided by Juba, 
a native prince, 
He over throws them at the —BATTLE—OF—Thapsus, 
He is AGAIN obliged to lead an army into SPAIN, 
where the sons of POMPEIUS had collected the wrecks of their father's party, 
He crushes the last of his enemies at —BATTLE—OF—Munda, 
Under THE—TITLE—OF—Dictator, 
he is the sole master of THE—ROMAN—WORLD.
_00440315            † CAESAR is killed IN—THE—SENATE—HOUSE;  
 the CIVIL—WARs are soon renewed, 
 Brutus and CASSIUS being at the HEAD—OF—the aristocratic party, 
 the party of CAESAR being led by MARK—ANTONY and OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR,
 afterwards the party of CAESAR being led by AUGUSTUS.
_00420000            † + DEFEAT AND DEATH OF BRUTUS AND CASSIUS AT PHILIPPI, 
Dissensions soon break out between OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR and MARK—ANTONY.
_00310000            MARK—ANTONY is completely defeated by OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR at ACTIUM.
 MARK—ANTONY flies to Egypt with Cleopatra, 
 Octavianus pursues MARK—ANTONY, 
 MARK—ANTONY and Cleopatra kill themselves, 
 Egypt becomes a ROMAn province, 
 OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR is left undisputed master of ROMe, 
 OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR is left undisputed master of all that is ROMe's.
AT THIS TIME  THE—STATE—OF—THE—ROMAN—WORLD is best described in two lines of TACITUS:--
"POSTQUAM bellatum apud ACTIUM, 
atque OMNEM POTESTATEM AD UNUM CONFERRI PACIS INTERFUIT." 
 (Hist, 
—LIBER—I— s, 
1.)
 The 44th year of THE—REIGN—OF—Augustus, and , 
 the 1, year of the 195. Olympiad, is commonly assigned as the date of THE NATIVITY OF OUR LORD.
 There is much of the beauty of holiness in the remarks with which THE AMERICAN HISTORIAN, ELIOT, 
THE AMERICAN HISTORIAN, ELIOT closes his survey of the conquering career and civil downFALL—OF—THE—ROMAN—Commonwealth:--
 "So far as humility amongst men was necessary for the preparation of a truer freedom than could ever be known under heathenism, 
THE PART OF ROME, however dreadful was yet sublime, 
THE PART OF ROME, was not to unite, 
THE PART OF ROME, was not, to discipline, or 
THE PART OF ROME, was not to fortify humanity, but
THE PART OF ROME, was to enervate, 
THE PART OF ROME, was to loosen, and
THE PART OF ROME, was to scatter its forces, 
that THE—PEOPLE whose history we have read were allowed to conquer the earth, 
were then themselves reduced to deep submission, 
Every good labour of theirs that failed was, 
by reason of what we esteem its failure, 
a step gained nearer to the end of the well-nigh universal evil that prevailed;  
 while every bad achievement that may seem to us to have succeeded, 
temporarily or lastingly, 
 them was equally, 
by reason of its success, 
a progress towards the good of which the coming would have been longed and prayed for, 
could it have been comprehended, 
Alike in the virtues and in the vices of antiquity, 
we may read the progress towards its humiliation, 
["The CHRISTIAN revelation," says Leland, 
in his truly admirable work on the subject (VOLUME—I—PAGE—488), 
"was made to THE—WORLD at a time when it was most wanted;  
 when the darkness and corruption of mankind were arrived at the height..., 
if it had been published much sooner, 
before there had
 been a full trial made of what was to be expected from human wisdom and
 philosophy, 
the great need men stood in of such an extraordinary divine
 dispensation would not have been so apparent."] 
Yet, 
on the other hand,
 it must not seem, 
at the last, 
that the disposition of THE—ROMANs or
 of mankind to submission was secured solely through the errors, 
 apparently ineffectual toils which we have traced back to these times of
 old, 
Desires too true to have been wasted, 
strivings too humane to
 have been unproductive, 
though all were overshadowed by passing wrongs,
 still gleam as if in anticipation or in preparation of the advancing
 day.
 "At length, 
when it had been proved by ages of KONFLIKT and loss, 
 no lasting joy and no abiding truth could be procured through the power,
 the freedom, 
or the faith of mankind, 
the angels sang their song in
 which the glory of God and the good-will of men were together blended.
 The universe was wrapped In momentary tranquillity, 
'peaceful was
 the night' above the manger at BETHLEHEM, 
We may believe, 
that when
 the morning came, 
the ignorance, 
the confusion, 
the servitude of
 humanity had left their darkest forms amongst the midnight clouds, 
 was still, 
beyond the power of man to lay hold securely of the
 charity and the regeneration that were henceforth to be his law, 
 indefinable TERROR—s of THE—FUTURE, 
whether seen from THE—WEST or from
 THE—EAST, 
were not at once to be dispelled, 
But before the death of the
 EMPEROR—Augustus, 
in the midst of his fallen subjects, 
the business of
 THE FATHER had ALREADY been begun in the Temple at Jerusalem, 
 and near
 by, 
THE SON was increasing in wisdom and in stature, 
in favour with
 God and man." 
[Eliot's "Liberty of ROMe," VOLUME—II—PAGE—521]
 CHAPTER—V
00090000             VICTORY—OF—ARMINIUS OVER THE—ROMAN—LEGIONS UNDER VARUS,
 "Hac clade factum, 
ut Imperium quod in littore oceani non steterat, 
in ripa Rheni fluminis staret."--FLORUS.
 To a truly illustrious Frenchman, 
whose reverses as a minister can never obscure his achievements IN—THE—WORLD of letters, 
we are indebted for
 the most profound and most eloquent estimate that we possess of THE—IMPORTANCE of the Germanic element in European civilization, 
of the
 extent to which the human race is indebted to those brave warriors, 
who long were the unconquered antagonists, 
finally became the conquerors, 
of Imperial ROMe.
 23 eventful years have passed away since M, 
Guizot delivered from the chair of modern history at PARIS his course of lectures on the HISTORY—OF—Civilization in Europe.
 -DURING those years the spirit of earnest inquiry into the germs and —EARLY, developments of existing institutions has become more and more active and universal;  
 and the merited celebrity of M, 
Guizot's work has proportionally increased, 
Its admirable analysis of the complex political and social ORGANIZATIONs of which the modern civilized world is made up, 
must have led thousands to
 trace with keener interest the great crises of times past, 
by which the characteristics of the present were determined, 
The narrative of one of these great crises, 
of the epoch 0009, 
when GERMANY took up arms
 for her independence against ROMAn —INVASÃON, 
has for us this special
 attraction--that it forms part of our own national history, 
Had ARMINIUS
 been supine or unsuccessful, 
our Germanic ancestors would have been
 enslaved or exterminated in their original seats along the Eyder and the
 ELBE, 
 this ISLAND would never have borne the name of ENGLAND, 
"we,
 this great English nation, 
whose race and language are now over-running
 the earth, 
from one end of it to the other," 
[ARNOLD's Lectures on
 Modern History] 
would have been utterly cut off from existence.
 ARNOLD may, 
go too far in holding that we are wholly unconnected
 in race with THE—ROMANs and Britons who inhabited this country before
 the coming over of the Saxons, 
 that, 
"nationally speaking, 
the history
 of CAESAR's —INVASÃON has no more to do with us than the natural history
 of the animals which then inhabited our forests." There seems
 ample evidence to prove that THE—ROMANized Celts, 
whom our Teutonic
 forefathers found here, 
influenced materially the character of our
But the main stream of our people was and is Germanic, 
Our language alone decisively proves this, 
ARMINIUS is far more truly 1 of our national heroes than Caractacus: and
 it was our own primeval fatherland that the brave German ARMINIUS rescued,
 when ARMINIUS slaughtered THE—ROMAN—legions 18 centuries ago in the marshy glens between the LIPPE and the Ems, 
[See post, 
remarks on the relationship between the Cherusci and THE—ENGLISH]
 Dark and disheartening, 
even to heroic spirits, 
must have seemed the
 prospects of GERMANY when ARMINIUS planned the general rising of his countrymen against ROMe, 
Half the land was occupied by ROMAn garrisons;   and,
 what was worse, 
many of THE—GERMANS seemed patiently acquiescent in their state of bondage, 
The braver portion, 
whose patriotism could be relied on, 
was ill-armed and undisciplined;  
 while the enemy's troops consisted of veterans IN—THE—HIGHest state of equipment and training,
 familiarized with victory, 
commanded by officers of proved skill and valour, 
The resources of ROMe seemed boundless;  
 her tenacity of purpose was believed to be invincible, 
There was no hope of foreign sympathy or aid;  
 for "the self-governing powers that had filled the old world,
 had bent one after another before the rising power of ROMe, 
had
 vanished, 
The earth seemed left void of independent nations." 
[Ranke]
 The (German) chieftain knew well the gigantic power of the oppressor.
 ARMINIUS was no rude savage, 
fighting out of mere animal instinct, 
 in ignorance of the might of his adversary, 
He was familiar with THE—ROMAN—language and civilization;  
 ARMINIUS had served IN—THE—ROMAN—armies;  
 ARMINIUS had been admitted to THE—ROMAN—citizenship, 
ARMINIUS had been raised to the dignity of the equestrian order, 
It was part of the subtle policy of ROMe to confer rank and privileges on the youth of the leading families in the nations which she wished to enslave, 
Among other young German chieftains, 
ARMINIUS and his brother, 
who were the heads of THE—NOBLESt house in the tribe of the Cherusci, 
had been selected as fit objects for the exercise of this insidious system, 
ROMAn refinements and dignities succeeded in denationalizing the brother, 
who assumed THE—ROMAN—name of Flavius, 
 adhered to ROMe —THROUGHOUT all her wars against his country, 
ARMINIUS remained unbought by honours or wealth, 
uncorrupted by refinement or luxury, 
ARMINIUS had been  aspired to and obtained from ROMAn enmity a higher title than ever could have been given him by ROMAn favour, 
It is in the page of ROMe's greatest historian, 
that his name has come down to us with the proud addition of "Liberator haud dubie Germaniae." 
[TACITUS, 
Annals, 
ii, 
88]
 Often must the young chieftain, 
while meditating the exploit which has thus immortalised him, 
have anxiously revolved in his mind the fate
 of the many great men who had been crushed in the attempt which he was about to renew,--the attempt to stay the chariot-wheels of triumphant ROMe, 
Could he hope to succeed where HANNIBAL and Mithridates had perished? What had been the doom of Viriathus? and what warning against
 vain valour was written on the desolate site where Numantia once had fourished? 
 Nor was a caution wanting in scenes nearer home and in more recent times, 
THE GAULS had fruitlessly struggled for 8—YEARS against CAESAR;and 
the valiant —CHEF—GAULOIS—VERCINGÉTORIX, 
             IN THE LAST YEAR OF THE—WAR, —CHEF—GAULOIS—VERCINGÉTORIX had roused all his countrymen to INSURRECTION, 
             IN THE LAST YEAR OF THE—WAR, —CHEF—GAULOIS—VERCINGÉTORIX his countrymen had cut off ROMAn detachments, and , 
             IN THE LAST YEAR OF THE—WAR, —CHEF—GAULOIS—VERCINGÉTORIX his countrymen had brought CAESAR himself to the extreme of peril at ALESIA
			 —CHEF—GAULOIS—VERCINGÉTORIX, too, had finally succumbed, 
			 —CHEF—GAULOIS—VERCINGÉTORIX had been led captive in CAESAR's triumph, and , 
			 —CHEF—GAULOIS—VERCINGÉTORIX had then been butchered in cold blood in a ROMAn dungeon.
			 It was true that ROMe was no longer the great MILITARY republic which for so many ages had shattered the kingdoms of THE—WORLD, 
ROME Her—SYSTEM of government was changed;  and, 
ROME, after 100—YEARS of REVOLUTION and CIVIL—WAR, had placed herself under the despotism of a single ruler, But 
the discipline of ROME Her—troops was yet unimpaired, and , 
ROME Her—warlike spirit seemed unabated, 
The 1, wars of THE—EMPIRE had been signalised by conquests as valuable as any gained by the republic in a corresponding period, 
It is a great fallacy, 
though apparently sanctioned by great authorities, 
to suppose that the FOREIGN—POLICY pursued by AUGUSTUS was pacific, 
 He certainly recommended such a policy to his successors, 
either from timidity, 
or from jealousy of their fame outshining his own;  
["Incertum metu an per invidiam."--Tac, 
Ann, 
i, 
11] 
 he himself, 
until ARMINIUS broke his spirit, 
had followed a very different course.
 Besides his Spanish wars, 
his generals, 
in a series of principally aggressive campaigns, 
had extended THE—ROMAN—frontier from the Alps to the Danube;  
 and had reduced into subjection the large and important
 countries that now form the territories of all AUSTRIA south of
 that river, 
of East Switzerland, 
Lower Wirtemberg, 
Bavaria, 
 Valteline, 
the Tyrol, 
While the progress of THE—ROMAN—arms thus
 pressed THE—GERMANS from the south, 
still more formidable inroads had
 been made by THE—IMPERIAL—legions IN—THE—WEST, 
ROMAn armies, 
moving from
 the province of Gaul, 
established a chain of fortresses along the right
 as well as the left bank of the Rhine, 
in a series of victorioUS—CAMPAIGNs, 
advanced their eagles as far as the ELBE, 
 which now seemed
 added to the list of vassal rivers, 
to the Nile, 
the Rhine, 
the RHONE,
 the Danube, 
the Tagus, 
the Seine, 
many more, 
that acknowledged the
 supremacy of the Tiber, 
ROMAN—FLEETs also, 
sailing from the harbours of
 Gaul along THE—GERMAN—coasts, 
up the estuaries, 
co-operated with the
 land-forces of THE—EMPIRE, 
 and seemed to display, 
even more decisively
 than her armies, 
her overwhelming superiority over the rude Germanic
 tribes, 
Throughout THE—TERRITORY thus invaded, 
THE—ROMANs had, 
 their usual MILITARY skill, 
established chains of fortified posts, 
 and a
 powerful army of occupation was kept on foot, 
ready to move instantly on
 any spot where a popular outbreak might be attempted.
 Vast however, 
admirably organized as the fabric of ROMAn power
 appeared on the frontiers and in the provinces, 
there was rottenness at
 the core, 
In ROMe's unceasing hostilities with foreign foes, 
still
in her long series of desolating CIVIL—WARs, 
the free middle
 classes of ITALY had almost wholly disappeared, 
Above the position which
 they had occupied, 
an oligarchy of wealth had reared itself: beneath
 that position a degraded mass of POVERTY and misery was fermenting.
 Slaves, 
the chance sweepings of every conquered country, 
shoals of
 Africans, 
Sardinians, 
Asiatics, 
Illyrians, 
others, 
made up the bulk
 of the population of the Italian PENINSULA, 
The foulest profligacy of
 manners was general in all ranks, 
In universal weariness of REVOLUTION
 and CIVIL—WAR, 
in consciousness of being too debased for
 self-government, 
the nation had submitted itself to the absolute
 authority of AUGUSTUS, 
ADULAtion was now THE—CHIEF function THE—SENATE:
 and the GIFTS—OF—genius and accomplishments of art were devoted to
 the elaboration of eloquently false panegyrics upon the prince and his
 favourite courtiers, 
With bitter indignation must THE—GERMAN—chieftain
 have beheld all this, 
contrasted with it the rough WORTH—OF—his own
 countrymen, 
--their bravery, 
their fidelity to their word, 
their manly
 independence of spirit their love of their national free institutions,
 and their loathing of every pollution and meanness, 
Above all, 
he must
 have thought of the domestic virtues that hallowed a German home, 
 of the
 respect there shown to the female character, 
of the pure affection
 by which that respect was repaid, 
His soul must have burned within him
 at the contemplation of such a race yielding to these debased Italians.
 Still, 
to persuade THE—GERMANS to combine, 
in spite of their frequent
 feuds among themselves, 
in one sudden outbreak against ROMe, 
 to keep the
 scheme concealed from THE—ROMANs until the hour for ACTION had arrived; and then, 
without possessing a single walled town, 
without military
 stores, 
without training, 
to teach his insurgent countrymen to defeat
 veteran armies, 
storm fortifications, 
seemed so perilous an
that probably ARMINIUS would have receded from it, 
had not a
 stronger feeling even than patriotism urged him on, 
Among THE—GERMANS
 of high rank who had most readily submitted to the invaders, 
become
 zealous partisans of ROMAn authority, 
was a chieftain named SEGESTES.
 His daughter, 
THUSNELDA, 
was pre-eminent among the noble maidens of
 GERMANY, 
ARMINIUS had sought her hand in marriage, 
 but SEGESTES, 
 probably discerned the young chief's disaffection to ROMe, 
forbade
 his suit, 
strove to preclude all communication between him and
 his daughter, 
sympathised far more with the heroic
 spirit of her lover, 
than with the time serving policy of her father, 
An
 elopement baffled the precautions of SEGESTES, 
disappointed in
 his hope of preventing the marriage, 
accused ARMINIUS, 
before THE—ROMAN
 governor, 
of having carried off his daughter, 
of planning treason
 against ROMe, 
Thus assailed, 
dreading to see his bride torn from him
 by the officials of the foreign oppressor, 
ARMINIUS delayed no longer,
 but bent all his energies to organize and execute a general INSURRECTION
 of the great mass of his countrymen, 
who hitherto had submitted in
 sullen inertness to THE—ROMAN—dominion.
 A change of governors had recently taken place, 
while it
 materially favoured the ultimate success of THE—INSURGENTS, 
served, 
 the immediate aggravation of THE—ROMAN—oppressions which it produced,
 to make the native population more universally eager to take arms.
 TIBERIUS, 
who was afterwards emperor, 
had lately been recalled from
 the command in GERMANY, 
sent into Pannonia to put down a dangerous
 revolt which had broken out against THE—ROMANs in that province, 
 German patriots were thus delivered from the stern supervision of one
 of the most auspicious of mankind, 
were also relieved from having
 to contend against THE—HIGH MILITARY talents of a veteran commander, 
 thoroughly understood their national character, 
the nature of
 THE—COUNTRY, 
which he himself had principally subdued, 
In the room of
AUGUSTUS sent into GERMANY QUINTILIUS—VARUS, 
who had lately
 returned from the proKONSULate of SYRIA, 
VARUS was a true representative
 of THE—HIGHer classes of THE—ROMAN—S, 
 among whom a general taste for
 literature, 
a keen susceptibility to all intellectual gratifications,
 a minute acquaintance with THE—PRINCIPLEs and practice of their own
 national jurisprudence, 
a careful training —IN—THE—schools of the
 rhetoricians, 
a fondness for either partaking in or watching the
 intellectual strife of forensic oratory, 
had become generally diffused; without, 
having humanized the old ROMAn spirit of cruel
 indifference for human feelings and human sufferings, 
without acting
 as the least check on unprincipled avarice and ambition, 
or on habitual
 and gross profligacy, 
Accustomed to govern the depraved and debased
 natives of SYRIA, 
a country where courage in man, 
virtue in woman,
 had —FOR—CENTURIES been unknown, 
VARUS thought that he might gratify
 his licentious and rapacious passions with equal impunity among the
 high-minded sons and pure-spirited daughters of GERMANY, 
 general of an army sets the example of outrages of this description, 
 is soon faithfully imitated by his officers, 
surpassed by his
 still more brutal soldiery, 
THE—ROMANs now habitually indulged in those
 violations of the sanctity of the domestic shrine, 
those insults
 upon honour and modesty, 
by which far less gallant spirits than those of
 our Teutonic ancestors have often been maddened into INSURRECTION.
[I cannot forbear quoting MACAULAY's beautiful lines, 
where he describes
 how similar outrages in the —EARLY, times of ROMe goaded the plebeians to
 rise against the patricians:--
 "Heap heavier still the fetters, 
 bar closer still the grate; Patient as sheep we yield us up unto your cruel hate.
 But by the shades beneath us, 
by the gods above,
 Add not unto your cruel hate your still more cruel love.***
 Then leave the poor plebeian his single tie to life--
 The sweet, 
sweet love of daughter, 
of sister, 
of wife,
 The gentle speech, 
the balm for all that his vext soul endures,
 The kiss in which he half forgets even such a yoke as yours.
 Still let the maiden's beauty swell the father's breast with
 pride; Still let the bridegroom's arms enfold an unpolluted bride.
 Spare us the inexpiable wrong, 
the unutterable shame,
 That turns the coward's heart to steel, 
the sluggard's blood to
 flame; Lest when our latest hope is fled ye taste of our despair,
 And learn by proof in some wild hour, 
how much the wretched
 dare."]
 ARMINIUS found among the other German chiefs many who sympathised with
 him in his indignation at their country's debasement, 
many whom
 private wrongs had stung yet more deeply, 
There was little difficulty in
 collecting bold leaders for an attack on the oppressors, 
little
 fear of the population not rising readily at those leaders' call, 
 to declare open war against ROMe, 
to encounter VARUS's army in a
 pitched battle, 
would have been merely rushing upon certain destruction.
 VARUS had 3 legions under him, 
a force which, 
after allowing for
 detachments, 
cannot be estimated at less than fourteen thousand ROMAn
He had also 8 or nine hundred ROMAn cavalry, 
at least
 an equal number of horse and foot sent from the allied states, 
or raised
 among those provincials who had not received THE—ROMAN—franchise.
 It was not merely the number, 
but the quality of this force that made
 it formidable, 
 and however contemptible VARUS might be as a general,
 ARMINIUS well knew how admirably THE—ROMAN—armies were organized and
 officered, 
how perfectly the legionaries understood every manoeuvre
 and every duty which the varying emergencies of a stricken field might
 require, 
Stratagem was, 
indispensable, 
 and it was necessary
 to blind VARUS to his schemes until a favourable opportunity should
 arrive for striking a decisive blow.
 For this purpose THE—GERMAN—confederates frequented the headquarters of
 VARUS, 
which seem to have been near the centre of the modern country
 of Westphalia, 
where THE—ROMAN—general conducted himself with all the
 arrogant security of THE—GOVERNOR—OF—a perfectly submissive province.
 There VARUS gratified at once his vanity, 
his rhetorical taste, 
 avarice, 
by holding courts, 
to which he summoned THE—GERMANS for
 the settlement of all their disputes, 
while a bar of ROMAn advocates
 attended to argue the cases before the tribunal of the ProKONSUL; who did not omit the opportunity of exacting court-fees and accepting
 bribes, 
VARUS trusted implicitly to the respect which THE—GERMANS
 pretended to pay to his abilities as a judge, 
to the interest which
 they affected to take in the forensic eloquence of their conquerors.
 Meanwhile a succession of heavy rains rendered THE—COUNTRY more
 difficult for THE—OPERATIONs of regular troops, 
 and ARMINIUS, 
seeing
 that the infatuation of VARUS was complete, 
secretly directed the tribes
 near the Weser and the Ems to take up arms in open revolt against the
 ROMAns, 
This was represented to VARUS as an occasion which required his
 prompt attendance at the spot, 
 but he was kept in studied ignorance of
 its being part of a concerted national rising, 
 and he still looked
 on ARMINIUS as his submissive vassal, 
whose aid he might rely on
 in facilitating the march of his troops against THE—REBELS, 
in
 extinguishing the local disturbance, 
He therefore set his army in
 motion, 
marched eastward in a line parallel to the course of the
 LIPPE, 
For some distance his route lay along a level plain, 
 arriving at the tract between the curve of the upper part of that
 stream and THE—SOURCES of the Ems, 
THE—COUNTRY assumes a very different
 character, 
 and here, 
IN—THE—TERRITORY of the modern little principality
 of LIPPE, 
it was that ARMINIUS had fixed the scene of his enterprise.
 A woody and hilly region intervenes between the heads of the two rivers,
 and forms the water-shed of their streams, 
This region still retains
 the name (Teutoberger wald--Teutobergiensis saltus) which it bore in the
 days of ARMINIUS, 
The nature of the ground has probably also remained
 unaltered, 
THE—EASTern part of it, 
round DETMOLDt, 
the present capital
 of the principality of LIPPE, 
is described by a modern German scholar,
 Dr, 
Plate, 
as being "a table-land intersected by numerous deep and
 narrow valleys, 
which in some places form small plains, 
surrounded by
 steep mountains and rocks, 
only accessible by narrow defiles, 
All
 the valleys are traversed by rapid streams, 
shallow in the dry season,
 but subject to sudden swellings in autumn and winter, 
The vast forests
 which cover the summits and slopes of the hills consist chiefly of oak; there is little underwood, 
both men and horse would move with ease
 in the forests if the ground were not broken by gulleys, 
or rendered
 impracticable by fallen trees." This is the district to which VARUS is
 supposed to have marched, 
 and Dr, 
Plate adds, 
that "the names of several
 localities on and near that spot seem to indicate that a great battle
 had once been fought there, 
We find the names 'das Winnefeld' (the field
 of victory), 
'die Knochenbahn' (the bone-lane), 
'die Knochenleke' (the
 bone-brook), 
'der Mordkessel' (the kettle of slaughter), 
others." 
[I
 am indebted for much valuable information on this subject to my friend
 Mister HENRY Pearson]
 Contrary to THE—USual strict principles of ROMAn discipline, 
VARUS had
 suffered his army to be accompanied and impeded by an immense train of
 baggage-waggons, 
by a rabble of camp followers, 
 as if his troops had
 been merely changing their quarters in a friendly country, 
When the long
 array quitted the firm level ground, 
began to wind its way among the
 woods, 
the marshes, 
the ravines, 
the difficulties of the march, 
even
 without the intervention of an armed foe, 
became fearfully apparent, 
In many places the soil, 
sodden with rain, 
was impracticable for cavalry
 and even for infantry, 
until trees had been felled, 
a rude causeway
 formed through the morass.
 The duties of the engineer were familiar to all who served in THE—ROMAN
But the crowd and confusion of the columns embarrassed the
 working parties of the soldiery, 
in the midst of their toil and
 disorder the word was suddenly passed through their ranks that the
 rear-guard was attacked by the barbarians, 
VARUS resolved on pressing forward;  
 but a heavy discharge of missiles from the woods on either
 flank taught him how serious was the peril, 
he saw the best men
 falling round him without the opportunity of retaliation;  
 for his light-armed auxiliaries, 
who were principally of Germanic race, 
now
 rapidly deserted, 
it was impossible to deploy the legionaries on
 such broken ground for a charge against the enemy, 
Choosing one of the most open and firm spots which they could force their way to, 
THE—ROMANs halted for the night;  
faithful to their national discipline and tactics, 
formed their camp amid the harassing attacks of the rapidly
 thronging foes, 
with the elaborate toil and systematic skill, 
the traces of which are impressed permanently on the soil of so many European
 countries, 
attesting the presence in the olden time of THE—IMPERIAL—eagles.
 On the morrow THE—ROMANs renewed their march;  
 the veteran officers who served under VARUS now probably directing THE—OPERATIONs, 
hoping to find THE—GERMANS drawn up to meet them;  
 in which case they relied on their own superior discipline and tactics for such a victory as should reassure the supremacy of ROMe, 
But ARMINIUS was far too sage a commander to lead on his followers, 
with their unwieldy broadswords and
 inefficient defensive armour, 
against THE—ROMAN—legionaries, 
fully armed with helmet, 
cuirass, 
greaves, 
shield;  
 who were skilled to commence the KONFLIKT with a murderous volley of heavy javelins, 
hurled upon the
 foe when a few yards distant, 
then, 
with their short cut-and-thrust swords, 
to hew their way through all opposition;  
 preserving the utmost steadiness and coolness, 
obeying each word of command, 
 In the midst of strife and slaughter with the same precision and alertness as if upon parade, 
[See Gibbon's description (VOLUME—I.CHAPTER—I) of THE—ROMAN—legions in the time of AUGUSTUS;  
 and see the description in TACITUS (Ann, 
lib, 
i) of the subsequent battles between Caecina and ARMINIUS] 
 suffered THE—ROMANs to march out from their camp, 
to form 1, 
in line for ACTION, 
then in column for marching, 
without the show
 of opposition, 
For some distance VARUS was allowed to move on, 
only harassed by slight skirmishes, 
but struggling with difficulty through the broken ground;  
 the toil and distress of his men being aggravated by
 heavy torrents of rain, 
which burst upon the devoted legions as if the
 angry gods of GERMANY were pouring out the vials of their wrath upon the
 invaders, 
After some little time their van approached a ridge of high
 woody ground, 
which is one of the off-shoots of the great Hercynian
 forest, 
is situate between the modern villages of Driburg and
 Bielefeld, 
ARMINIUS had caused BARRICADEs of hewn trees to be formed
 here, 
so as to add to the natural difficulties of the passage, 
Fatigue
 and discouragement now began to betray themselves IN—THE—ROMAN—ranks.
 Their line became less steady;  
 baggage-waggons were abandoned from the impossibility of forcing them along;  
as this happened, 
many soldiers left their ranks and crowded round the waggons to secure the most valuable portions of their property;  
 each was busy about his own affairs, 
purposely slow in hearing the word of command from his
 officers, 
ARMINIUS now gave the signal for a general attack, 
The fierce
 shouts of THE—GERMANS pealed through the gloom of the forests, 
 thronging multitudes they assailed the flanks of the invaders, 
pouring
 in clouds of darts on the encumbered legionaries, 
as they struggled up
 the glens or floundered in the morasses, 
watching every opportunity
 of charging through the intervals of the disjointed column, 
 cutting off the communication between its several brigades, 
ARMINIUS,
 with a chosen—BAND—of personal retainers round him, 
cheered on his
 countrymen by voice and example, 
He and his men aimed their weapons
 particularly at the horses of THE—ROMAN—cavalry, 
The wounded animals,
 slipping about in the mire and their own blood, 
threw their riders,
 and plunged among the ranks of the legions, 
disordering all round
 them, 
VARUS now ordered the troops to be countermarched, 
in the hope of
 reaching the nearest ROMAn garrison on the LIPPE, 
[The circumstances
 of the —EARLY, part of the battle which ARMINIUS fought with Caecina 6
 years afterwards, 
evidently resembled those of his battle with VARUS,
 and the result was very near being the same: I have therefore adopted
 part of the description which TACITUS gives (Ann, 
—LIBER—I—CHAPTER—65) of the
 last mentioned engagement: "Neque tamen ARMINIUS, 
quamquam libero in
 cursu, 
statim prorupit: sed ut haesere caeno fossisque impedimenta,
 turbati circum milites, 
 incertus signorum ordo, 
 utque tali in tempore
 sibi quisque properus, 
et lentae adversum imperia aures, 
irrumpere
 Germanos jubet, 
clamitans 'En VARUS, 
et eodem iterum fato victae
 legiones!' Simul haec, 
et cum delectis scindit agmen, 
equisque maxime
 vulnera ingerit, 
 illi sanguine suo et lubrico paludum lapsantes,
 excussis rectoribus, 
disjicere obvios, 
proterere jacentes."] 
But retreat
 now was as impracticable as advance, 
 and the falling back of THE—ROMAN—S
 only augmented the courage of their assailants, 
caused fiercer and
 more frequent charges on the flanks of the disheartened army, 
THE—ROMAN
 officer who commanded the cavalry, 
Numonius Vala, 
rode off with his
 squadrons, 
in the vain hope of escaping by thus abandoning his comrades.
 Unable to keep together, 
or force their way across the woods and swamps,
 the horsemen were overpowered in detail and slaughtered to the last man.
 THE—ROMAN—infantry still held together and resisted, 
but more through
 the instinct of discipline and bravery than from any hope of success or
 escape, 
VARUS, 
after being severely wounded in a charge of THE—GERMANS
 against his part of the column, 
committed suicide to avoid falling into
 the hands of those whom he had exasperated by his oppressions, 
One of
 the lieutenant-generals of THE—ARMY fell fighting, 
 the other surrendered
 to the enemy, 
But mercy to a fallen foe had never been a ROMAn virtue,
 and those among her legions who now laid down their arms in hope of
 quarter, 
drank deep of the cup of suffering, 
which ROMe had held to
 the lips of many a brave but unfortunate enemy, 
The infuriated Germans
 slaughtered their oppressors with deliberate ferocity, 
 and those prisoners who were not hewn to pieces on the spot, 
were only preserved to perish by a more cruel death in cold blood.
 The bulk of THE—ROMAN—army fought steadily and stubbornly, 
frequently repelling the masses of the assailants, 
but gradually losing the
 compactness of their array, 
becoming weaker and weaker beneath the incessant shower of darts and the reiterated assaults of the vigorous
 and unencumbered Germans, 
At last, 
in a series of desperate attacks the column was pierced through and through, 
two of the eagles captured, 
 THE—ROMAN—host, 
which on the yester morning had marched forth in such pride and might, 
now broken up into confused fragments, 
either fell
 fighting beneath the overpowering numbers of the enemy, 
or perished —IN—THE—swamps and woods in unavailing efforts at flight, 
Few, 
very few,
 ever saw AGAIN the left bank of the Rhine, 
One body of brave veterans, 
arraying themselves in a ring on a little mound, 
beat off every charge
 of THE—GERMANS, 
prolonged their honourable resistance to the close of that dreadful day, 
The traces of a feeble attempt at forming a ditch
 and mound attested in after years the spot where the last of THE—ROMANs passed their night of suffering and despair, 
But on the morrow this
 remnant also, 
worn out with hunger, 
wounds, 
toil, 
was charged by the victorious Germans, 
either massacred on the spot, 
or offered up in
 fearful rites at the alters of the deities of the old mythology of the North.
 A gorge in the mountain ridge, 
through which runs the modern road between PADERBORN and Pyrmont, 
leads from the spot where the heat of the
 battle raged, 
to the Extersteine, 
a cluster of bold and grotesque rocks of sandstone;  
 near which is a small sheet of water, 
overshadowed by a grove of aged trees, 
ACCORDING—TO—local tradition, 
this was one of the sacred groves of THE—ANCIENT Germans, 
it was here that THE—ROMAN
 captives were slain in sacrifice by the victorioUS—WARriors of ARMINIUS.
["Lucis propinquis barbarae arae, 
apud quas tribunos ac primorum ordinam centuriones mactaverant."--TACITUS, 
—LIBER—I—CHAPTER—61]
 Never was victory more decisive, 
never was the liberation of an oppressed people more instantaneous and complete, 
Throughout GERMANY THE—ROMAN—garrisons were assailed and cut off;  
within a few weeks after VARUS had fallen, 
THE—GERMAN—soil was freed from the foot of an invader.
 At ROMe, 
the tidings of the battle was received with an agony of terror,
 the descriptions of which we should deem exaggerated, 
did they not come from ROMAn historians themselves, 
These passages IN—THE—ROMAN—writers not only tell emphatically how great was the awe which THE—ROMANs felt
 of the prowess of THE—GERMANS, 
if their various tribes could be brought
 to reunite for a common purpose, 
but also they reveal bow weakened and debased the population of ITALY had become, 
[It is clear that THE—ROMANs followed the policy of fomenting dissension and wars of THE—GERMANS among themselves, 
See the thirty-third section of the "Germania" of TACITUS, 
where he mentions the destruction of the Bructeri by the
 neighbouring tribes: "Favore quodam erga nos deorum: nam ne spectaculo quidem proelii invidere: super LX, 
millia non armis telisque ROMAnis,
 sed, 
quod magnificentius est, 
oblectationi oculisque ceciderunt, 
Maneat quaeso, 
duretque gentibus, 
si non amor nostri at certe odium sui quando
 urgentibus imperii fatis, 
nihil jam praestare fortuna majus potes quam
 hostiam discordiam."] 
Dion CASSIUS says: 
lvi—SECTION—23] 
"Then
 AUGUSTUS, 
when he heard the calamity of VARUS, 
rent his garments, 
 was in great affliction for the troops he had lost, 
for terror
 respecting THE—GERMANS and the GAULS, 
And his chief alarm was, 
that he
 expected them to push on against ITALY and ROMe: and there remained no
 ROMAn youth fit for MILITARY duty, 
that were worth speaking of, 
 allied populations that were at all serviceable had been wasted away.
 Yet he prepared for the emergency as well as his means allowed, 
 and when
 none of the citizens of MILITARY age were willing to enlist he made them
 cast lots, 
punished by confiscation of goods and disfranchisement
 every fifth man among those under thirty-5, 
every tenth man of
 those above that age, 
when he found that not even thus, 
 could
 he make many come forward, 
he put some of them to death, 
So he made
 a conscription of discharged veterans and emancipated slaves, 
 collecting as large a force as he could, 
sent it, 
under TIBERIUS, 
 all speed into GERMANY."
 Dion mentions, 
a number of terrific portents that were believed to
 have occurred AT—THE—TIME, 
 and the narration of which is not immaterial,
 as it shows THE—STATE—OF—THE—PUBLIC mind, 
when such things were so
 believed in, 
so interpreted, 
The summits of the Alps were said to
 have fallen, 
3 columns of fire to have blazed up from them, 
 the Campus Martius, 
the temple of THE—WAR-God, 
from whom the founder of
 ROMe had sprung, 
was struck by a thunderbolt, 
The nightly heavens glowed
 several times, 
as if on fire, 
Many comets blazed forth together, 
 fiery meteors shaped like spears, 
had shot from the northern quarter of
 the sky, 
down into THE—ROMAN—camps, 
It was said, 
that a statue of
 VICTORy, 
which had stood at a place on the frontier, 
pointing the way
 towards GERMANY, 
had of its own accord turned round, 
now pointed
 to ITALY, 
These and other prodigies were believed by the multitude to
 accompany the slaughter of VARUS's legions, 
to manifest the anger of
 the gods against ROMe, 
AUGUSTUS himself was not free from superstition; but on this occasion no supernatural TERROR—s were needed to increase the
 alarm and grief that he felt, 
 and which made him, 
even for months after
 THE—NEWS of the battle had arrived, 
often beat his head against the
 wall, 
exclaim, 
"QUINTILIUS—VARUS, 
give me back my legions!" We learn
 this from his biographer, 
Suetonius, 
every ancient writer
 who alludes to the overthrow of VARUS, 
attests THE—IMPORTANCE of the
 blow against THE—ROMAN—power, 
the bitterness with which it was felt.
[Florus expresses its effect most pithily: "Hac clade factum est ut
 imperium quod in litore oceani non steterat, 
in ripa Rheni fluminis staret" (iv, 
12)]
 THE—GERMANS did not pursue their victory beyond their own territory.
 But that victory secured at once and for ever the independence of the
 Teutonic race, 
ROMe sent, 
her legions AGAIN into GERMANY, 
 parade a temporary superiority, 
 but all hopes of permanent conquest were
 abandoned by AUGUSTUS and his successors.
 The blow which ARMINIUS had struck never was forgotten, 
ROMAn fear
 disguised itself under the specious title of moderation, 
 and the Rhine
 became the acknowledged boundary of the two nations until the 
04000101—04991231    of our era, 
when THE—GERMANS became the assailants, 
carved
 with their conquering swords the provinces of Imperial ROMe into the
 kingdoms of modern Europe.
 ARMINIUS.
 I have said above that the great Cheruscan is more truly one of our
 national heroes than Caractacus is, 
It may be added that an ENGLISH—MAN
 is entitled to claim a closer degree of relationship with ARMINIUS
 than can be claimed by any German of modern GERMANY, 
The proof of this
 depends on the proof of 4 facts: 1., 
that the Cherusci were
 Old Saxons, 
or Saxons of the interior of GERMANY, 
 secondly, 
that the
 ANGLO—SAXONs, 
or Saxons of THE—COAST—OF—GERMANY, 
were more closely akin
 than other German tribes were to the Cheruscan Saxons, 
 thirdly, 
 Old Saxons were almost exterminated by Charlemagne, 
 fourthly, 
 the ANGLO—SAXONs are our immediate ancestors, 
The last of these may be
 assumed as an axiom in English history, 
The proofs of the other 3
 are partly philological, 
partly historical, 
I have not space to
 go into them here, 
but they will be found in the —EARLY, chapters of the
 great work of Dr, 
Robert Gordon Latham on the "English Language, 
" and
 in the notes to his edition of the "Germania of TACITUS." It may be,
here remarked that the present Saxons of GERMANY are of the
 High Germanic DIVISION—OF—THE—GERMAN—race, 
whereas both the ANGLO—SAXON
 and Old Saxon were of the Low Germanic.
 Being thus the nearest heirs of the glory of ARMINIUS, 
we may fairly
 devote more attention to his career than, 
in such a work as the present,
 could be allowed to any individual leader, 
it is interesting to
 trace how far his fame survived
             —DURING—the middle ages, 
both among the
 Germans of the Continent and among ourselves.
 It seems probable that the jealousy with which Maraboduus, 
the king of
 the Suevi and Marcomanni, 
regarded ARMINIUS, 
which ultimately broke
 out into open hostilities between those German tribes and the Cherusci,
 prevented ARMINIUS from leading the confederate Germans to attack ITALY
 after his 1, 
victory, 
Perhaps he may have had the rare moderation
 of being content with the liberation of his country, 
without seeking to
 retaliate on her former oppressors, 
When TIBERIUS marched into GERMANY
 —J—IM, 10, 
ARMINIUS was too cautious to attack him on ground
 favourable to the legions, 
TIBERIUS was too skilful, 
to entangle his
 troops in difficult parts of THE—COUNTRY, 
His march and counter-march
 were as unresisted as they were unproductive, 
A few years later, 
 a dangerous revolt of THE—ROMAN—legions near the frontier caused
 their generals to find them active employment by leading them into the
 interior of GERMANY, 
we find ARMINIUS AGAIN energetic in his country's
The old quarrel between him and his father-in-law, 
SEGESTES,
 had broken out afresh, 
SEGESTES now called in the aid of THE—ROMAN
 general, 
Germanicus, 
to whom he surrendered himself, 
 and by his
 contrivance his daughter THUSNELDA, 
the wife of ARMINIUS, 
also came into
 the hands of THE—ROMAN—S, 
being far advanced in pregnancy, 
She showed, 
 TACITUS relates, 
[Ann, 
57] 
more of the spirit of her husband than
 of her father, 
a spirit that could not be subdued into tears or
 supplications, 
She was sent to RAVENNA, 
there gave birth to a son,
 whose life we find, 
from an allusion in TACITUS, 
to have been eventful
 and unhappy, 
 but the part of the great historian's work which narrated
 his fate has perished, 
we only know from another quarter that
 the son of ARMINIUS was, 
at THE—AGE of 4—YEARS, 
led captive in a
 triumphal pageant along the streets of ROMe.
 THE—HIGH spirit of ARMINIUS was goaded almost into frenzy by these
 bereavements, 
The fate of his oo, 
thus torn from him, 
of his
 babe doomed to bondage even before its birth, 
inflamed the eloquent
 invectives with which he roused his countrymen against the home
 traitors, 
against their invaders, 
who thus made war upon women and
 children, 
Germanicus had marched his army to the place where VARUS had
 perished, 
had there paid funeral honours to the ghastly relics
 of his predecessor's legions that he found heaped around him, 
[In the Museum of Rhenish antiquities at BONN there is a ROMAn sepulchral
 monument, 
the inscription on which records that it was erected to the
 memory of M, 
Coelius, 
who fell "BELLO VARIANO."] 
ARMINIUS lured him to
 advance a little further into THE—COUNTRY, 
then assailed him, 
 fought a battle, 
by THE—ROMAN—accounts, 
was a drawn one, 
 effect of it was to make Germanicus resolve on retreating to the Rhine.
 He himself, 
with part of his troops, 
embarked in some vessels on the
 Ems, 
returned by that river, 
then by sea, 
 but part of his forces
 were entrusted to a ROMAn general, 
named Caecina, 
to lead them back by
 land to the Rhine, 
ARMINIUS followed this division on its march, 
 fought several battles with it, 
in which he inflicted heavy loss on
 THE—ROMAN—S, 
captured the greater part of their baggage, 
would have
 destroyed them completely, 
had not his skilful —SYSTEM of operations been
 finally thwarted by the haste of Inguiomerus, 
a confederate German chief
 who insisted on assaulting THE—ROMANs in their camp, 
instead of waiting
 till they were entangled in the difficulties of THE—COUNTRY, 
 assailing their columns on the march.
 In the following year THE—ROMANs were inactive, 
 afterwards Germanicus led a fresh —INVASÃON, 
He placed his army on
 ship-board, 
sailed to the mouth of the Ems, 
where he disembarked,
 and marched to the Weser, 
where he encamped, 
probably in the
 neighbourhood of Minden, 
ARMINIUS had collected his army on the other
 side of the river, 
 and a scene occurred, 
which is powerfully told by
 TACITUS, 
which is THE—SUBJECT—OF—a beautiful poem by Praed, 
It has
 been ALREADY mentioned that the brother of ARMINIUS, 
like himself, 
 been trained up, 
while young, 
to serve IN—THE—ROMAN—armies, 
unlike
he not only refused to quit THE—ROMAN—service for that of his
 country, 
but fought against his country with the legions of Germanicus.
 He had assumed THE—ROMAN—name of Flavius, 
had gained considerable
 distinction IN—THE—ROMAN—service, 
in which he had lost an eye from a
 wound in battle, 
When THE—ROMAN—outposts approached the river Weser,
 ARMINIUS called out to them from the opposite bank, 
expressed a wish
 to see his brother, 
Flavius stepped forward, 
ARMINIUS ordered
 his own followers to retire, 
requested that the archers should
 be removed from THE—ROMAN—bank of the river, 
This was done: and the
 brothers, 
who apparently had not seen each other —FOR—SOME—YEARS, 
began
 a conversation from the opposite sides of the stream, 
in which ARMINIUS
 questioned his brother respecting the loss of his eye, 
what battle
 it had been lost in, 
what reward he had received for his wound.
 Flavius told him how the eye was destroyed, 
mentioned the increased
 pay that he had ON—ACCOUNT—OF—its loss, 
showed the collar and other
 MILITARY decorations that had been given him, 
ARMINIUS mocked at these
 as badges of slavery, 
 and then each began to try to win the other
 over, 
 Flavius boasting the power of ROMe, 
her generosity to the
 submissive, 
 ARMINIUS appealing to him in the name of their country's
 gods, 
of the mother that had borne them, 
by the holy names of
 fatherland and freedom, 
not to prefer being the betrayer to being
 the champion of his country, 
They soon proceeded to mutual taunts and
 menaces, 
Flavius called aloud for his horse and his arms, 
 might dash across the river and attack his brother, 
 nor would he have
 been checked from doing so, 
had not THE—ROMAN—general, 
Stertinius, 
run
 up to him, 
forcibly detained him, 
ARMINIUS stood on the other bank,
 threatening the renegade, 
defying him to battle.
 I shall not be thought to need apology for quoting here the stanzas in
 which Praed has described this scene--a scene among the most affecting,
 as well as the most striking, 
that history supplies, 
It makes us reflect
 on the desolate position of ARMINIUS, 
with his oo and child captives
 in the enemy's hands, 
with his brother a renegade in arms against
 him, 
The great liberator of our German race stood there, 
with every
 source of human happiness denied him, 
except the consciousness of doing
 his duty to his country.
 "Back, 
back!  
 he fears not foaming flood
 Who fears not steel-clad line:--
 No warrior thou of German blood,
 No brother thou of mine.
 Go, 
earn ROMe's chain to load thy neck,
 Her gems to deck thy hilt; And blazon honour's hapless wreck
 With all the gauds of guilt.
 "But wouldst thou have ME share the prey?
 By all that I have done,--
 The Varian bones that day by day
 Lie whitening —IN—THE—sun,
 The legion's trampled panoply,
 The eagle's shattered wing,--
 I would not be for earth or sky
 So scorn'd and mean a thing.
 "Ho, 
call me here the wizard, 
boy,
 Of dark and subtle skill,
 To agonise but not destroy,
 To curse, 
but not to kill.
 When swords are out, 
shriek and shout,
 Leave little room for prayer,
 No fetter on man's arm or heart
 Hangs half so heavy there.
 "I curse him by the gifts the land
 Hath won from him and ROMe--
 The riving axe, 
the wasting brand,
 Rent forest, 
blazing home.
 I curse him by our country's gods,
 The terrible, 
the dark,
 The breakers of THE—ROMAN—rods,
 The smiters of the bark.
 "Oh misery, 
that such a ban
 On such a brow should be!
 Why COMES he not in battle's van
 His country's chief to be?--
 To stand a comrade by my side,
 The sharer of my fame,
 And worthy of a brother's pride
 And of a brother's name?
 "But it is past!--where heroes press
 And cowards bend the knee
 ARMINIUS is not brotherless; His brethren are the free.
 They come around:  one hour, 
light
 Will fade from turf and tide,
 Then onward, 
onward to the fight
 With darkness for our guide.
 "To-night, 
to-night, 
when we shall meet In combat face to face,
 Then only would ARMINIUS greet The renegade's embrace.
 The canker of ROMe's guilt shall be Upon his dying name;  
 And as he lived in slavery, 
So shall he fall in shame.
 —ON—THE—DAY—AFTER THE—ROMANs had reached the Weser, 
Germanicus led his
 army across that river, 
a partial encounter took place, 
in which ARMINIUS was successful, 
But on the succeeding day a general ACTION was fought, 
in which ARMINIUS was severely wounded, 
THE—GERMAN—infantry routed with heavy loss, 
The horsemen of the two armies encountered without either party gaining the advantage, 
But THE—ROMAN—army remained master of the ground, 
claimed a complete victory, 
Germanicus erected a trophy in the field, 
with a vaunting inscription, 
that the nations
 between the Rhine and the ELBE had been thoroughly conquered by his army, 
But that army speedily made a final retreat to the left bank of the Rhine;  
 nor was the effect of their campaign more durable than their trophy, 
The sarcasm with which TACITUS speaks of certain other
 triumphs of ROMAn generals over Germans, 
may apply to the pageant which Germanicus celebrated on his return to ROMe from his command of the
 ROMAn army of the Rhine, 
THE—GERMANS were "TRIUMPHATI POTIUS QUam VICTI."
 After THE—ROMANs had abandoned their attempts on GERMANY, 
we find ARMINIUS engaged in hostilities with Maroboduus, 
THE—KING—OF—the Suevi
 and Marcomanni who was endeavouring to bring the other German tribes into a state of dependency on him, 
ARMINIUS was at the HEAD—OF—the
 Germans who took up arms against this home invader of their liberties.
 After some minor engagements, 
_00160000            1 pitched battle was fought between the two confederacies, 
in which the loss on each side was equal;  
 but Maroboduus confessed the ascendency of his antagonist by avoiding a renewal of the engagement, 
by imploring the intervention of the
 ROMAns in his defence, 
The younger DRUSUS then commanded THE—ROMAN—legions in the province of Illyricum, 
by his mediation a peace was concluded between ARMINIUS and Maroboduus, 
by the terms of which it is evident that 
the latter must have renounced his ambitious schemes against the freedom of the other German tribes.
 ARMINIUS did not long survive this 2. WAR—OF—independence, 
 ARMINIUS successfully waged for his country, 
ARMINIUS was assassinated in the 37 year of his age, by some of his own kinsmen, who conspired against him, 
TACITUS says that this happened while ARMINIUS was
 engaged in a CIVIL—WAR, 
which had been caused by his attempts to make
 himself king over his countrymen, 
It is far more probable (as one of the
 best biographers of ARMINIUS has observed) that TACITUS misunderstood an
 attempt of ARMINIUS to extend his influence as elective war-chieftain
 of the Cherusci, 
other tribes, 
for an attempt to obtain the royal
 dignity, 
[Dr, 
in Biographical Dictionary commenced by the Society
 for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge] 
When we remember that his
 father-in-law and his brother were renegades, 
we can well understand
 that a party among his kinsmen may have been bitterly hostile to him,
 and have opposed his authority with the tribe by open violence, 
 that seemed ineffectual, 
by secret assassination.
 ARMINIUS left a name, 
which the historians of the nation against which
 ARMINIUS combated so long and so gloriously have delighted to honour, 
It is from the most indisputable source, from the lips of enemies, that we know his exploits, 
[See TACITUS, Ann, LIBER—ii—SECTION—88, 
 Velleius Paterculus—LIBER—ii—SECTION—118]
His country men made history, but did not write it, 
But his memory lived among them in the lays of their bards, who recorded
 "The deeds ARMINIUS did, the fields ARMINIUS won, The freedom ARMINIUS restored."
 TACITUS, many years after the death of ARMINIUS, says of him, 
"Canitur adhuc barbaras apud gentes." 
As time passed on, the gratitude of ancient GERMANY to her great deliverer grew into adoration, and , 
divine honours were paid —FOR—CENTURIES to ARMINIUS by every tribe of the Low Germanic DIVISION—OF—THE—TEUTONIC races, 
The Irmin-sul, or the column of Herman, near Eresburg, the modern Stadtberg, 
was the chosen object of worship to the descendants of the Cherusci, 
the Old Saxons, 
in defence of which they fought most desperately against Charlemagne and his christianized Franks, 
"Irmin, in the cloudy Olympus of Teutonic belief, appears as a king and a warrior; and 
the pillar, the 'Irmin-sul,' bearing the statue, and , 
considered as the symbol of the deity, was the Palladium of the Saxon nation, 
until the temple of Eresburg was destroyed by Charlemagne, and , 
the column itself transferred to the monastery of Corbey, 
where, perhaps, a portion of the rude rock idol yet remains, covered by the ornaments of the Gothic era." 
[Palgrave on THE—ENGLISH Commonwealth, VOLUME—II—PAGE—140]
AFTER THEIR SETTLEMENT IN THIS ISLAND, Traces of the worship of ARMINIUS are to be found among our ANGLO—SAXON ancestors, 
 One of the 4 great highways was held to be under THE—PROTECTION—OF—the deity, and , 
was called the "Irmin-street." 
 The name ARMINIUS is, of course, the mere Latinized form of "Herman," 
 the name by which the hero and the deity were known by every man of Low German blood, 
on either side of THE—GERMAN—Sea, 
It means, etymologically, the "War-man," the "man of hosts."
 No other explanation of the worship of the "Irmin-sul," and of the name
 of the "Irmin-street," is so satisfactory as that which connects them with the deified ARMINIUS, 
We know for certain of the existence of other columns of an analogous character, 
Thus, 
there was the ROLAND-säule in NORTH—GERMANY;  
 there was a Thor-seule in Sweden, 
(what is more important) there was an Athelstan-seule in Saxon ENGLAND, 
[See Lappenburg's ANGLO—SAXONs—PAGE—378, 
For nearly all the philological and ethnographical facts respecting ARMINIUS, 
I am indebted to Dr, R. G.  
Latham]
 There is at the present moment a song respecting the Irmin-sul current in the bishopric of Minden, 
one version of which might seem only to refer to Charlemagne having pulled down the Irmin-sul:--
 "Herman, 
sla dermen, 
Sla pipen, 
sla trummen,
 De KAISER will kummen,
 Met hamer un stangen,
 Will Herman uphangen."
 But there is another version, 
which probably is the oldest, 
 clearly refers to the great ARMINIUS:--
 "Un Herman slaug dermen;  
 Slaug pipen, 
slaug trummen;  
 De fursten sind kammen,
 Met all eren-mannen
 Hebt VARUS uphangen."
[See Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie—PAGE—329]
 About ten centuries and a half after the demolition of the Irmin-sul,
 and nearly 18 after the death of ARMINIUS, 
the modern Germans conceived the idea of rendering tardy homage to their great hero; and,
 accordingly some 8 or 10—YEARS—AGO, a general subscription was organized in GERMANY, 
for the purpose of erecting on the OSNING--a conical mountain, 
which forms THE—HIGHest summit of the Teutoberger Wald, 
is 18 hundred feet above the level of the sea--a
 colossal bronze statue of ARMINIUS, 
The statue was designed by Bandel.
 The hero was to stand uplifting a sword in his right hand, 
looking
 towards the Rhine, 
The height of the statue was to be eighty feet from the base to the point of the sword, 
was to stand on a circular Gothic temple, 
ninety feet high, 
supported by oak trees as columns.
 The mountain, where it was to be erected, is wild and stern, 
 overlooks the scene of the battle, 
It was calculated that the statue
 would be clearly visible at a distance of sixty miles, 
The temple is nearly finished, 
the statue itself has been cast at the copper works at Lemgo, 
But there, 
through want of funds to set it up, 
it has lain —FOR—SOME—YEARS, in disjointed fragments, 
exposed to the mutilating homage of relic-seeking travellers, 
The idea of honouring a hero who belongs to ALL GERMANY, 
is not one which the present rulers of that divided country have any wish to encourage, 
 and the statue may long continue to lie there, 
present too true a type of the condition of GERMANY herself.
[On THE—SUBJECT—OF—this statue I must repeat an acknowledgment of my
 obligations to my friend Mister HENRY Pearson]
 Surely this is an occasion in which ENGLISH—MEN might well prove, 
by acts
 as well as words, 
that we also rank ARMINIUS among our heroes.
 I have quoted the noble stanzas of one of our modern English poets on
I will conclude this memoir with one of the odes of the
 great poet of modern GERMANY, 
Klopstock, 
on THE—VICTORY to which we owe
 our freedom, 
ARMINIUS mainly owes his fame, 
Klopstock calls it
 the "BATTLE—OF—Winfield." The epithet of "Sister of CANNAE" shows that
 Klopstock followed some chronologers, 
ACCORDING—TO—whom, 
VARUS was defeated on THE—ANNIVERSARY—OF—THE—DAY—ON—WHICH Paulus and Varro were defeated by HANNIBAL.
 SONG OF TRIUMPH AFTER THE—VICTORY—OF—HERRMAN, 
THE DELIVERER OF GERMANY FROM THE—ROMANs.
 FROM KLOPSTOCK'S "HERRMAN UND DIE FURSTEN." Supposed to be sung by a
 Chorus of Bards.
 A CHORUS.
 Sister of CANNAE!  
 Winfield's fight!
 We saw thee with thy streaming bloody hair,
 With fiery eye, 
bright with THE—WORLD's despair,
 Sweep by Walhalla's bards from out our sight.
 Herrman outspake--"Now VICTORy or Death!"
 THE—ROMAN—S,.., 
"VICTORy!"
 And onward rushed their eagles with the cry.
 --So ended the 1.
day.
 "VICTORy or Death!" began
 Then, 
1., 
THE—ROMAN—chief, and 
[ARMINIUS]HERRMAN spake Not, 
but home struck:  the eagles fluttered--brake.
 --So sped the SECOND day.
 TWO CHORUSES.
 And the third came..., 
The cry was "Flight or Death!"
 Flight left they not for them who'd make them slaves--
 Men who stab children!--flight for THEM!.., 
no!  
 graves!
 --'Twas their LAST day.
 TWO BARDS.
 Yet spared they messengers:  two came to ROMe.
 How drooped the plume!  
 the lance was left to trail
 Down in the dust behind:  their cheek was pale:
 So came the messengers to ROMe.
 High in his hall the IMPERATOR sate--
 OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR—AUGUSTUS sate.
 They filled up wine-cups, 
wine-cups filled they up
 For him THE—HIGHest, 
Jove of all their state.
 The flutes of Lydia hushed before their voice,
 Before the messengers--the "Highest" sprung--
 The god against the marble pillars, wrung
 By the dred words, striking his brow, and , 
thrice Cried he aloud in anguish--"VARUS! VARUS! Give back my legions, VARUS!"
 And now THE—WORLD-wide conquerors shrunk and feared
 For fatherland and home
 The lance to raise, 
 and 'mongst those false to ROMe
 The death-lot rolled, 
still they shrunk and feared; "For she her face hath turned,
 The victor goddess," cried these cowards--(for aye
 Be it!)--"from ROMe and ROMAns, 
her day
 Is done!"--And still be mourned
 And cried aloud in anguish--"VARUS!  
 VARUS!
 Give back my legions, 
VARUS!"
[Notes:--
_02160802            —BATTLE—OF—CANNAE, 
_02160802            HANNIBAL's victory over THE—ROMAN—S, 
 Winfield--the probable site of the "Herrmanschladt." 
 See SUPRA.
 AUGUSTUS was worshipped as a deity in his lifetime, 
I have taken this translation from an anonymous writer in FRASER, two YEARS—AGO]
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN ARMINIUS'S VICTORY OVER VARUS, and , THE —BATTLE—OF—CHALONS.
00430000             THE—ROMANs commence the conquest of BRITAIN, 
00430000             CLAUDIUS being then EMPEROR—OF—Rome, 
00430000             The population of this ISLAND was then Celtic, 
00430000             In about 40 years all the tribes south of the Clyde were subdued, and , 
00430000             In about 40 years all the tribes south of the Clyde their land made a ROMAn province.
00680000—00600000    Successful campaigns of THE—ROMAN—GENERAL—CORBULO against THE—PARTHIANs.
00640000             1. persecution of the Christians at ROMe under NERO.
00680000—00700000    CIVIL—WARs IN—THE—ROMAN—WORLD, 
00680000—00700000    THE—EMPERORs NERO, cut off successively by violent deaths, , 
00680000—00700000    THE—EMPEROR Galba, cut off successively by violent deaths, , 
00680000—00700000    THE—EMPEROR Otho, cut off successively by violent deaths, and 
00680000—00700000    THE—EMPEROR VITELLIUS, cut off successively by violent deaths, 
VESPASIAN becomes emperor.
00700000             Jerusalem destroyed by THE—ROMANs under TITUS.
00830000             Futile attack of DOMITIAN on THE—GERMANS.
00860000             Beginning of THE—WARs between THE—ROMANs and the Dacians.
00980000—01170000    TRAJAN, EMPEROR—OF—Rome, 
Under TRAJAN THE—EMPIRE acquires its greatest territorial extent by his conquests in Dacia and in THE—EAST.
TRAJAN His successor, HADRIAN, 
HADRIAN abandons the provinces beyond THE—EUphrates,
00980000—01170000    TRAJAN had conquered the provinces beyond THE—EUphrates,.
01380000—01800000    Era of the Antonines.
01670000—01760000    A long and desperate WAR—BETWEEN—Rome and A GREAT CONFEDERACY OF THE—GERMAN—NATIONS, 
MARCUS—ANTONINUS at last succeeds in repelling A GREAT CONFEDERACY OF THE—GERMAN—NATIONS.
01920000—01970000    CIVIL—WARs —THROUGHOUT THE—ROMAN—WORLD, 
SEVERUS becomes emperor.
 SEVERUS relaxes the discipline of the soldiers, 
02110000             † SEVERUS his death in, 
02110000             —AFTER, the series of MILITARY INSURRECTIONs, 
02110000             —AFTER, the series of CIVIL—WARs, and , 
02110000             —AFTER, the series of murders of emperors recommences.
02260000             [ARDISHEER]ARTAXERXES overthrows THE—PARTHIAN, and , 
02260000             [ARDISHEER]ARTAXERXES restores the PERSIAn kingdom in Asia, 
02260000             [ARDISHEER]ARTAXERXES attacks THE—ROMAN—POSSESSIONs in THE—EAST.
02600000             THE—GOTHS invade THE—ROMAN—provinces, 
02600000             THE—EMPEROR—Decius is defeated and slain by THE—GOTHS.
02530000—02600000    THE—FRANKS and ALEMANNI invade Gaul, 
02530000—02600000    THE—FRANKS and ALEMANNI invade SPAIN, 
02530000—02600000    THE—FRANKS and ALEMANNI invade Africa, 
02530000—02600000    THE—GOTHS attack Asia Minor and Greece, 
02530000—02600000    THE—PERSIANS conquer Armenia, 
02530000—02600000    THE—PERSIANS Their king Sapor defeats THE—ROMAN—EMPEROR—VALERIAN, 
02530000—02600000    THE—PERSIANS Their king Sapor takes THE—ROMAN—EMPEROR—VALERIAN prisoner.
02530000—02600000    GENERAL distress of THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE.
02680000—02830000    THE—EMPEROR—CLAUDIUS defeats the various enemies of ROMe, 
02680000—02830000    THE—EMPEROR—AURELIAN defeats the various enemies of ROMe, 
02680000—02830000    THE—EMPEROR—TACITUS defeats the various enemies of ROMe, 
02680000—02830000    THE—EMPEROR—PROBUS defeats the various enemies of ROMe, and , 
02680000—02830000    THE—EMPEROR—CARUS defeats the various enemies of ROMe, and , 
02680000—02830000    —THE—ROMAN—STATE—EMPERORs ORDER restore
02850000             KAISER—DIOCLETIANUS THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE divides and 
r02850000             KAISER—DIOCLETIANUS THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE eorganizes , 
03050000             —IN, After KAISER—DIOCLETIANUS his abdication 
03050000             —IN, After a fresh series of CIVIL—WARs and confusion ensues.
03240000             the 1. CHRISTIAN—ROMAN—EMPEROR—CONSTANTINE, reunites THE—EMPIRE in .
03300000             the 1. CHRISTIAN—ROMAN—EMPEROR—CONSTANTINE makes Constantinople the—ROMAN—EMPIRE—seat instead of ROMe.
03630000             † THE—EMPEROR—JULIAN is killed in ACTION—AGAINST—THE—PERSIANS.
03640000—03750000    THE—EMPIRE is AGAIN divided, 
03640000—03750000    VALENTINIAN being EMPEROR—OF—THE—WEST, and , 
03640000—03750000    VALENS being EMPEROR—OF—THE—EAST, 
03640000—03750000    VALENTINIAN repulses the ALEMANNI, and
03640000—03750000    VALENTINIAN repulses other German invaders from Gaul, 
03640000—03750000    Splendour of the Gothic kingdom under Hermanric, north of the Danube .
03760000—03950000    The Huns attack THE—GOTHS, 
THE—GOTHS implore THE—PROTECTION—OF—THE—ROMAN—EMPEROR—OF—THE—EAST, 
THE—GOTHS are allowed to pass the Danube, and
THE—GOTHS are allowed to settle IN—THE—ROMAN—provinces, 
-SOON A war breaks out between THE—GOTHS and THE—ROMANS, and , 
THE—EMPEROR—VALENS and his army are destroyed by THE—GOTHS.
 THE—GOTHS ravage THE—ROMAN—territories, 
THE—EMPEROR—THEODOSIUS reduces THE—GOTHS to submission, 
THE—GOTHS retain settlements in Thrace and Asia Minor.
03950000             Final DIVISION—OF—THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE between ARCADIUS and HONORIUS,
03950000             ARCADIUS and HONORIUS the 2 sons of des THEODOSIUS, 
03950000             THE—GOTHS revolt, and , 
03950000             THE—GOTHS under Alaric attack various parts of both THE—ROMAN—EMPIREs.
04100000             Alaric takes THE—CITY—OF—Rome.
04120000             THE—GOTHS march into Gaul, and , 
04140000             THE—GOTHS march into SPAIN, 
04140000             SPAIN had been ALREADY invaded by hosts of Vandals, 
04140000             SPAIN had been ALREADY invaded by hosts of Suevi, 
04140000             SPAIN had been ALREADY invaded by hosts of Alani, and , 
04140000             SPAIN had been ALREADY invaded by hosts of other Germanic nations, 
04140000             BRITAIN is formally abandoned by THE—ROMAN—EMPEROR—OF—THE—WEST.
04280000             Genseric, KING—OF—the Vandals, conquers THE—ROMAN—province of NORTH—AFRICA.
04410000             The Huns attack THE—EASTern empire.
 CHAPTER—VI -- —BATTLE—OF—CHALONS, 
04510000             "The discomfiture of the mighty attempt of ATTILA to found a new ANTI—Christian dynasty upon the wreck of the temporal power of ROMe, 
             at the end of the term of twelve hundred years, 
to which its duration had been limited by the forebodings of the  heathen."
 --HERBERT.
 A broad expanse of plains, the Campi Catalaunici of THE—ANCIENTs, spreads far and wide around THE—CITY—OF—CHALONS, in the north-east of FRANCE, 
The long rows of poplars, through which the river Marne winds its way, and , 
a few thinly-scattered villages, are almost the only objects that vary the monotonous aspect of the greater part of this region, 
But about 5 miles from CHALONS, near the little hamlets of Chaps and Cuperly, 
the ground is indented and heaped up in ranges of grassy mounds and trenches, 
which attest the work of man's hand in ages past, and which, to the practised eye, demonstrate that 
this quiet spot has once been the fortified position of a huge MILITARY host.
 Local tradition gives to these ancient earthworks the name of ATTILA's Camp, 
Nor is there any reason to question the correctness of the title, or to doubt that behind these very ramparts it was that, 
1400—YEARS—AGO,
 the most powerful heathen king that ever ruled in Europe mustered the
 remnants of his vast army, 
which had striven on these plains against
 the CHRISTIAN soldiery of Thoulouse and ROMe, 
Here it was that ATTILA
 prepared to resist to the death his victors in the field, 
 and here he
 heaped up the treasures of his camp in one vast pile, 
which was to be
 his funeral pyre should his camp be stormed, 
It was here that the Gothic
 and Italian forces watched but dared not assail, 
their enemy in his
 despair, 
after that great and terrible day of battle, 
 "The sound
 Of KONFLIKT was o'erpast, 
the shout of all
 Whom earth could send from her remotest bounds,
 Heathen or faithful, 
--from thy hundred mouths,
 That feed the Caspian with Riphean snows,
 Huge Volga!  
 from famed Hypanis, 
which once
 Cradled the Hun, 
 from all the countless realms
 Between Imaus and that utmost strand
 Where columns of Herculean rock confront
 The blown Atlantic, 
 ROMAn, 
Goth, 
Hun,
 And Scythian strength of chivalry, 
that tread
 The cold Codanian shore, 
or what far lands
 Inhospitable drink Cimmerian floods,
 Franks, 
Saxons, 
Suevic, 
Sarmartian chiefs,
 And who from green Armorica or SPAIN
 Flocked to the work of death."
[Herbert's ATTILA—BOOK—I—LINE—13]
 THE—VICTORY which THE—ROMAN—general Aetius, 
with his Gothic allies, 
 then gained over the Huns, 
was the last VICTORY—OF—Imperial ROMe, 
 among the long Fasti of her triumphs, 
few can be found that, 
for their
 importance and ultimate benefit to mankind, 
are comparable with this
 expiring effort of her arms, 
It did not, 
open to her any new
 career of conquest, 
 it did not consolidate the relics of her power, 
 it
 did not turn the rapid ebb of her fortunes, 
The mission of Imperial ROMe
 was, 
in truth, 
ALREADY accomplished, 
She had received and transmitted
 through her once ample dominion the civilization of Greece, 
She had
 broken up the barriers of narrow nationalities among the various states
 and tribes that dwelt around THE—COAST—OF—the Mediterranean, 
 fused these and many other races into one organized empire, 
bound
 together by a community of laws, 
of government and institutions, 
Under
 the shelter of her full power the True Faith had arisen in the earth and
             —DURING 
             —THE —YEARS of her decline it had been nourished to maturity, 
 had overspread all the provinces that ever obeyed her sway, 
[See the—INTRODUCTIOn to Ranke's HISTORY—OF—the PAPAs] 
For no beneficial
 purpose to mankind could the dominion of the seven-hilled city have been
 restored or prolonged, 
But it was all-important to mankind what nations
 should divide among them ROMe's rich inheritance of empire: whether the
 Germanic and Gothic warriors should form states and kingdoms out of
 the fragments of her dominions, 
become the free MEMBERS—OF—the
 commonwealth of CHRISTIAN Europe, 
 or whether pagan savages from the
 wilds of CENTRAL—ASIA should crush the relics of classic civilization,
 and the —EARLY, institutions of the christianized Germans, 
in one hopeless
 chaos of barbaric conquest, 
The CHRISTIAN Vistigoths of King THEODOric
 fought and triumphed at CHALONS, 
side by side with the legions of
 Aetius, 
Their joint victory over the Hunnish host not only rescued for
 a time from destruction the old age of ROMe, 
but preserved —FOR—CENTURIES
 of power and glory the Germanic element in the civilization of modern
 Europe.
 In order to estimate the full importance to mankind of the —BATTLE—OF
 CHALONS, 
we must keep steadily in mind who and what THE—GERMANS were,
 and the important distinctions between them and the numerous other races
 that assailed THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE: and it is to be understood that the
 Gothic and the Scandinavian nations are included IN—THE—GERMAN—race.
 Now, 
"in two remarkable traits THE—GERMANS differed from the Sarmatic,
 as well as from the Slavic nations, 
from all those other
 races to whom THE—GREEKS and ROMAns gave the designation of barbarians.
 I allude to their personal freedom and regards for the rights of men; secondly, 
to the respect paid by them to the female sex and the chastity
 for which the latter were celebrated among THE—PEOPLE—OF—the North.
 These were the foundations of that probity of character, 
self-respect,
 and purity of manners which may be traced among THE—GERMANS and
 Goths even
             —DURING pagan times, 
when their sentiments were
 enlightened by Christianity, 
brought out those splendid traits of
 character which distinguish THE—AGE of chivalry and romance." 
[See
 Prichard's Researches into the Physical HISTORY—OF—Mankind, 
VOLUME—iii, PAGE—423]
What the intermixture of THE—GERMAN—stock with the classic, 
at the FALL—OF—THE—WESTern Empire, 
has done for mankind may be best felt
 by watching, 
with ARNOLD, 
over how large a portion of the earth the
 influence of THE—GERMAN—element is now extended.
 "It affects, more or less, the whole west of Europe, 
from the HEAD—OF—the Gulf of Bothnia to the most southern promontory of Sicily, 
from the Oder and the Adriatic to the Hebrides and to Lisbon, 
It is true that the language spoken over a large portion of this space is not predominantly German, but 
even in FRANCE, 
ITALY, 
the influence of THE—FRANKS, 
the influence of THE—BURGundians, 
the influence of the Visigoths, 
the influence of the Ostrogoths, 
the influence of the Lombards, 
while it has coloured even the language, 
has in blood and institutions left its MARK legibly and indelibly, 
GERMANY, 
THE—LOW—COUNTRIES, 
Switzerland for the
 most part, 
Denmark, 
Norway, 
Sweden, 
our own islands, 
are all in
 language, 
in blood, 
in institutions, 
German most decidedly, 
 all South America is peopled with Spaniards and Portuguese, 
 all North
 America, 
all Australia with ENGLISH—MEN, 
I say nothing of the
 prospects and influence of THE—GERMAN—race in Africa and in India: it
 is enough to say that half of Europe, 
all America and Australia,
 are German, 
more or less completely, 
in race, 
in language, 
or in
 institutions, 
or in all." 
[ARNOLD's Lectures on Modern History—PAGE—35]
 By the middle of the fifth century, 
Germanic nations had settled
 themselves in many of the fairest regions of THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE,
 had imposed their yoke on the provincials, 
had undergone, 
to a
 considerable extent, 
that moral conquest which the arts and refinements
 of the vanquished in arms have so often achieved over the rough victor.
 The Visigoths held the north of SPAIN and Gaul south of the LOIRE.
ALEMANNI, 
Alans, 
Burgundians had established themselves in
 other Gallic provinces, 
the Suevi were masters of a large southern
 portion of the Spanish PENINSULA, 
A KING—OF—the Vandals reigned in
 NORTH—AFRICA, 
the Ostrogoths had firmly planted themselves in the
 provinces north of ITALY, 
Of these powers and principalities, 
that of
 the Visigoths, 
under their king THEODOric, 
son of Alaric, 
was by far the
in power and in civilization.
 The pressure of the Huns upon Europe had 1, 
been felt in the fourth
 Jh. of our era, 
They had long been formidable to the Chinese empire; but the ascendency in arms which another nomadic tribe of CENTRAL—ASIA,
 the Sienpi gained over them, 
drove the Huns from their Chinese conquests
 westward, 
 and this movement once being communicated to the whole chain
 of barbaric nations that dwelt northward of the Black Sea and THE—ROMAN
tribe after tribe of savage warriors broke in upon the barriers
 of civilized Europe, 
"velut unda supervenit undam." The Huns crossed the
 Tanais into Europe in 375, 
rapidly reduced to subjection the Alans,
 the Ostrogoths, 
other tribes that were then dwelling along the
 course of the Danube, 
The armies of THE—ROMAN—EMPEROR that tried to
 check their progress were cut to pieces by them, 
 and Panonia and other
 provinces south of the Danube were speedily occupied by the victorious
 cavalry of these new invaders, 
Not merely the degenerate ROMAns, 
but the
 bold and hardy warriors of GERMANY and SCANDINAVIA[SCANDINAVIEN] 
were appalled at the
the ferocity, 
the ghastly appearance, 
the lightning-like
 rapidity of the Huns, 
Strange and loathsome legends were coined and
 credited, 
which attributed their origin to the UNION—OF—"Secret, 
black,
 and midnight hags" with the evil spirits of the wilderness.
 Tribe after tribe, 
city after city, 
fell before them, 
Then came
 a pause in their career of conquest in South-western Europe caused
 probably by dissensions among their chiefs, 
also by their arms being
 employed in attack upon the Scandinavian nations, 
But when ATTILA (or
 Atzel, 
as he is called in the Hungarian language) became their ruler,
 the torrent of their arms was directed with augmented TERROR—s upon the
 west and the south, 
 and their myriads marched beneath the guidance of
 one master-mind to the overthrow both of the new and the old powers of
 the earth.
 Recent events have thrown such a strong interest over everything
 connected with the Hungarian name, 
that even the terrible name of ATTILA
 now impresses us the more vividly through our sympathising admiration of
 the exploits of those who claim to be descended from his warriors, 
 "ambitiously insert the name of ATTILA among their native kings." The
 authenticity of this martial genealogy is denied by some writers, 
 questioned by more, 
But it is at least certain that THE MAGYARS OF ARPAD, 
THE MAGYARS OF ARPAD are the immediate ancestors of the bulk of the modern Hungarians, and , 
08890000             THE MAGYARS OF ARPAD who conquered THE—COUNTRY which bears the name OF—HUNGARY in , 
THE MAGYARS OF ARPAD were of the same stock of mankind as were the Huns of ATTILA, 
even if THE MAGYARS OF ARPAD did not belong to the same subDIVISION—OF—that stock, 
Nor is there any improbability in the tradition, that 
after ATTILA's death many of his warriors remained in Hungary, and , that
 their descendants afterwards joined the Huns THE MAGYARS OF ARPAD in their career of conquest, 
It is certain that ATTILA made Hungary the seat of his empire.
 It seems also susceptible of clear proof that
THEN THE—TERRITORY was called Hungvar and ATTILA's soldiers Hungvari, 
Both the Huns of ATTILA and those of Arpad came from the family of nomadic nations, 
whose primitive regions were those vast wildernesses of High Asia which are included between the Altaic and the Himalayan mountain-chains, 
The inroads of these tribes upon the lower regions of Asia and into Europe, have caused many of the most remarkable REVOLUTIONs —IN—THE—HISTORY—OF—THE—WORLD, 
There is every reason to believe that swarms of these nations made their way into distant parts of the earth, 
AT PERIODS LONG BEFORE THE DATE OF THE SCYTHIAN —INVASÃON—OF—ASIA, 
which is the earliest inroad of the nomadic race that history records, 
The 1., as far as we can conjecture, 
in respect to the time of their descent were the Finnish and Ugrian tribes, 
who appear to have come down from the Asiatic border of High Asia towards the north-west, 
in which direction they advanced to the Uralian mountains, 
There they established themselves: and
 that mountain chain, with its valleys and pasture-lands, became to them a new country, 
whence they sent out colonies on every side, but 
the Ugrian colony, 
which under Arpad occupied Hungary, and , 
became THE—ANCESTORS of the bulk of the present Hungarian nation, 
TILL A VERY LATE PERIOD, did not quit their settlements on the Uralian mountains 
NOT UNTIL 4 CENTURIES AFTER THE TIME WHEN ATTILA led from the primary seats of the nomadic races in High Asia the host with which he advanced into the heart of FRANCE, 
[See Prichard's Researches into the Physical HISTORY—OF—Mankind]
That host was Turkish, but closely allied in origin, language, and habits, with the Finno-Ugrian settlers on the Ural.
 ATTILA's fame has not come down to us through the partial and suspicious medium of chroniclers and poets of his own race, 
It is not from Hunnish authorities that we learn the extent of his might: 
It is from his enemies, 
from the literature and the legends of the nations whom he afflicted with his arms, 
that we draw the unquestionable evidence of his greatness, 
Besides the express narratives of Byzantine, 
Besides the express narratives of Latin, and
Besides the express narratives of Gothic writers, 
we have the strongest proof of the stern reality of ATTILA's conquests in the extent to which he and his Huns have been the themes of the earliest German and Scandinavian lays, 
Wild as many of these legends are, 
they bear concurrent and certain testimony to the awe with which the memory of ATTILA was regarded by the bold warriors who composed and delighted in them, 
ATTILA's exploits, and , 
the wonders of his unearthly steed and magic sword, repeatedly occur —IN—THE—sagas of Norway and 
Iceland, and 
the celebrated Niebelungen Lied, 
the most ancient of Germanic poetry, is full of them, 
There Etsel or ATTILA, is described as the wearer of twelve mighty crowns, and , 
as promising to his bride the lands of thirty kings, 
whom his irresistible sword has subdued, 
He is, in fact, the hero of the latter part of this remarkable poem, and 
it is at his capital city, Etselenburgh, which evidently corresponds to the modern Buda, that much of its ACTION takes place.
 When we turn from the legendary to the historic ATTILA, 
we see clearly that he was not one of the vulgar herd of barbaric conquerors.
 Consummate MILITARY skill may be traced in his campaigns, and
 he relied far less on the brute force of armies for the aggrandizement of his empire, 
 than on the unbounded influence over the affections of friends and the fears of foes which his genius enabled him to acquire.
 Austerely sober in his private life, 
severely just on the judgment-seat,
 conspicuous among a nation of warriors for hardihood, 
strength, and
 skill in every martial exercise, 
grave and deliberate in counsel, but
 rapid and remorseless in EXECUTION, 
he gave safety and security to all who were under his dominion, 
while he waged a warfare of extermination against all who opposed or sought to escape from it, 
He matched THE—NATIONAL passions, 
the prejudices, 
the creeds, and , 
the superstitions of the varied nations over which he ruled, and , 
of those which he sought to reduce beneath his sway: 
and these feelings he had the skill to turn to his own account, 
His own warriors believed him to be the inspired favourite of their deities, and , 
followed him with fanatic zeal: 
his enemies looked on him as the pre-appointed minister of Heaven's wrath against themselves, and, 
though they believed not in his creed, 
their own made them tremble before him.
 In one of his —EARLY, campaigns he appeared before his troops with an ancient iron sword in his grasp, 
which he told them was the god of war whom their ancestors had worshipped, 
It is certain that the nomadic tribes of Northern Asia, 
whom HERODOTUS described under the name of Scythians, 
from the earliest times worshipped as their god a bare sword.
IN ATTILA'S TIME, That sword-God was supposed, to have disappeared from earth;   but
 the Hunnish king now claimed to have received it by special revelation, 
It was said that a herdsman, who was tracking in the desert a wounded heifer by the drops of blood, 
found the mysterious sword standing fixed in the ground, as if it had been darted down from heaven.
 The herdsman bore it to ATTILA, who
 THENCEFORTH was believed by the Huns to wield the Spirit of Death in battle, and 
 the seers prophesied that that sword was to destroy THE—WORLD, 
A ROMAn, 
[Priscus] 
who was on an embassy to the Hunnish camp, recorded in his memoirs ATTILA's acquisition of this supernatural weapon, and , 
the immense influence over the minds of the barbaric tribes which its possession gave him, 
In the title which he assumed, we shall see the skill with which he availed himself of the legends and creeds of other nations as well as of his own, 
He designated himself "ATTILA, Descendant of the Great Nimrod.
He designated himself "ATTILA, Nurtured in Engaddi, 
He designated himself "ATTILA, By the Grace of God, 
He designated himself "ATTILA, ATTILA—KING—OF—THE—HUNS, 
He designated himself "ATTILA, ATTILA—KING—OF—THE—Goths,
He designated himself "ATTILA, ATTILA—KING—OF—THE—Danes, and , 
He designated himself "ATTILA, ATTILA—KING—OF—THE—Medes, 
He designated himself "ATTILA, The Dread of THE—WORLD."
 Herbert states that ATTILA is represented on an old medallion with a Teraphim, or a head, on his breast, and 
 Herbert adds: 
 "We know, from the 'Hamartigenea' of Prudentius, that 
 Nimrod, with a snaky-haired head, was the object of adoration to the heretical followers of Marcion; and 
 the same head was the palladium set up by Antiochus Epiphanes over the gates of Antioch, though it has been called the visage of Charon.
 The memory of Nimrod was certainly regarded with mystic veneration by many, and 
 by asserting himself to be the heir of that Nimrod, mighty hunter before the Lord, 
he vindicated to himself at least the whole BABYLONian kingdom.
 "The singular assertion in his style, that he was nurtured in Engaddi where he certainly, had never been, 
will be more easily understood on reference to the 12. CHAPTER—of THE—BOOK of Revelation, 
the 12. CHAPTER—of THE—BOOK of Revelation, concerning the woman clothed with the sun, 
who was to bring forth in the wilderness--'where she hath a place prepared of God'--a man-child, 
 was to contend with the dragon having 7 heads and 10 horns, and
 rule all nations with a rod of iron, 
This prophecy was AT—THAT—TIME understood universally by the sincere Christians to refer to the birth of CONSTANTINE, 
CONSTANTINE was to overwhelm the paganism of THE—CITY on the seven hills, and , 
it is still so explained, but 
it is evident that the heathens must have looked on it in a different light, and , 
have regarded it as a foretelling of the birth of that Great One who should master the temporal power of ROMe, 
The assertion, therefore, that he was nurtured in Engaddi, 
is a claim to be looked upon as that man-child who was to be brought forth in a place prepared of God in the wilderness, 
Engaddi means, a place of palms and vines, in the desert, it was hard by Zoar, THE—CITY—OF—refuge, 
which was saved in the vale of Siddim, or Demons,
 when the rest were destroyed by fire and brimstone from the Lord in heaven, and , 
might, therefore, be especially called a place prepared of God in the wilderness."
It is obvious enough why ATTILA styled himself "By the grace of God, KING—OF—the Huns and Goths, 
" and it seems far from difficult to see why ATTILA added the names of the Medes and the Danes, 
ATTILA armies had been engaged in warfare against the PERSIAn KINGDOM—of—THE—SASsanidae, and 
it is certain 
[See the narrative of Priscus] 
that ATTILA meditated the attack and overthrow of the Medo-PERSIAn power, 
Probably some of the northern provinces of that kingdom had been compelled to pay ATTILA tribute, and
 this would account for ATTILA his styling himself ATTILA—KING—OF—THE—Medes, 
the Medes being ATTILA his remotest subjects to the south, 
From a similar cause ATTILA may have called himself ATTILA—KING—OF—THE—Danes, 
as ATTILA his power may well have extended northwards as far as the nearest of the Scandinavian nations, and
 this mention of Medes and Danes as ATTILA his subjects would serve at once to indicate the vast extent of ATTILA his dominion, 
[In the "Niebelungen-Lied," the old poet who describes the reception of the heroine Chrimhild by
 ATTILA (Etsel) says that ATTILA's dominions were so vast, that 
among ATTILA his subject-warriors there were Russian KNIGHTS, 
among ATTILA his subject-warriors there were Greek KNIGHTS, 
among ATTILA his subject-warriors there were Wallachian KNIGHTS, 
among ATTILA his subject-warriors there were Polish KNIGHTS, and , even
among ATTILA his subject-warriors there were DANISH KNIGHTS]
 The extensive territory north of the Danube and Black sea, and , eastward of Caucasus, over which ATTILA ruled, 
1. in conjunction with ATTILA his brother Bleda, and , 
AFTERWARDS ATTILA alone, 
cannot be very accurately defined; but 
it must have comprised within it, besides the Huns, 
it must have comprised within it many nations of Slavic, 
it must have comprised within it many nations of Gothic, 
it must have comprised within it many nations of Teutonic, and , 
it must have comprised within it many nations of Finnish origin, 
South also of the Danube, THE—COUNTRY from the river Sau as far as Novi in Thrace was a Hunnish province, 
04450000             —IN, Such was THE—EMPIRE of the Huns , 
04450000             a memorable year, in which ATTILA FOUNDED Buda on the Danube as his capital city, and
04450000             a memorable year, in which ATTILA ridded himself of his brother by a crime, 
04450000             which seems to have been prompted not only by selfish ambition, but also 
04450000             by a desire of turning to ATTILA his purpose the legends and forebodings which then were universally spread —THROUGHOUT THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE, and , 
04450000             must have been well known to the watchful and ruthless Hun.
04450000             —THE —YEAR of our era completed the 11000101—11991231    from the foundation of ROMe, ACCORDING—TO—the best chronologers, 
It had always been believed among THE—ROMANs that the 12 vultures which were said to have appeared to Romulus when he FOUNDED THE—CITY, 
signified the time
             —DURING which THE—ROMAN—power should endure, 
The twelve vultures denoted 12 centuries, 
This interpretation of the vision of the birds of destiny was current among learned ROMAns, 
even when there were yet many of the 12 centuries to run, and , 
while THE—IMPERIAL—city was at the zenith of its power, But 
as the allotted time drew nearer and nearer to its conclusion, and , 
as ROMe grew weaker and weaker beneath the blows of barbaric invaders, 
the terrible omen was more and more talked and thought of, and 
in ATTILA's time, men watched for the momentary extinction of THE—ROMAN—STATE with the last beat of the last vulture's wing, 
among the numerous legends connected with the foundation of THE—CITY, and , the fratricidal death of Remus, 
there was one most terrible one, 
which told that Romulus did not put his brother to death in accident, or in hasty quarrel, but that
 "He slew his gallant twin With inexpiable sin." deliberately, and , in compliance with THE—WARnings of supernatural powers, 
The shedding of a brother's blood was believed to have been the price at which the founder of ROMe had purchased from destiny her 12 centuries of existence, 
[See a curious justification of ATTILA's murder of his brother, by a zealous Hungarian advocate, in the note to Pray's "ANNALES—Hunnorum," p, 117, 
The example of Romulus is the main authority
 quoted]
 We may imagine, 
with what TERROR—IN—this, 
 twelve-hundredth year after the foundation of ROMe, 
the inhabitants of
 THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE must have heard the tidings that THE—ROYAL—brethren,
 ATTILA and Bleda, 
had FOUNDED a new capitol on the Danube, 
which was designed to rule over THE—ANCIENT capitol on the Tiber, 
 and that ATTILA, like Romulus, had consecrated the foundations of his new city by murdering his brother, 
 so that, for the new cycle of centuries then about to commence, 
dominion had been bought from the gloomy spirits of destiny in favour of the Hun, 
by a sacrifice of equal awe and value with that which had formerly obtained it for THE—ROMANs.
 It is to be remembered that not only the pagans, but also the Christians of that age, knew and believed in these legends and omens, 
however they might differ as to the nature of the superhuman agency by which such mysteries had been made known to mankind, 
And we may observe, with Herbert, a modern learned dignitary of our Church, 
how remarkably this augury was fulfilled, 
04760000             "if to the twelve centuries denoted by the twelve vultures that appeared to Romulus, 
04760000             we add for the 6 birds that appeared to Remus 6 lustra, or periods of 5—YEARS each, by which
04760000             —THE—ROMANs were wont to number their time, it brings us precisely to
04760000             —THE—YEAR in which THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE was finally extinguished by ODOACER."
04450000             —IN, An attempt to assassinate ATTILA, made, or supposed to have been made, at the instigation of THEODOSIUS—THE—YOUNGER—EMPEROR—OF—CONSTANTINOPLE, 
04450000             —IN, drew the Hunnish armies upon THE—EASTern empire, and , 
04450000             DELAYED FOR—A—TIME the destined blow against ROMe, 
04450000             Probably a more important cause of delay was the revolt of some of the Hunnish tribes to the north of the Black Sea against ATTILA, 
04450000             which broke out about this period, and , 
04450000             is cursorily mentioned by the Byzantine writers.
04450000             ATTILA quelled this revolt, and having thus consolidated his power, and
04450000             ATTILA having punished the presumption of THE—EASTERN—ROMAN—EMPEROR by fearful ravages of his fairest provinces, 
04500000             ATTILA prepared to set his vast forces in motion for the conquest of Western Europe, 
04500000             ATTILA sought unsuccessfully by diplomatic intrigues to detach the —KING—OF—THE—Visigoths from his alliance with ROMe, and , 
04500000             ATTILA resolved 1. to crush the power of THEODOric, and , 
04500000             ATTILA resolved 2. to advance with overwhelming power to trample out the last sparks of the doomed ROMAN—EMPIRE.
04500000             A strong invitation from a ROMAn princess gave ATTILA a pretext for THE—WAR, and , 
04500000             A strong invitation from a ROMAn princess threw an air of chivalric enterprise over ATTILA his —INVASÃON.
04500000             HONORIA, sister of VALENTINIAN—III., THE—EMPEROR—OF—THE—WEST, 
04500000             HONORIA had sent to ATTILA to offer him her hand, and , 
04500000             HONORIA her supposed right to share in the imperial power, 
This had been discovered by ROMAns, and , 
04500000             HONORIA had been forthwith closely imprisoned, 
ATTILA now pretended to take up arms in behalf of his self-promised bride, and , 
ATTILA proclaimed that he was about to march to ROMe to redress Honoria's wrongs, 
Ambition and spite against her brother must have been the sole motives that led the lady to woo the royal Hun for 
 ATTILA's face and person had all THE—NATIONAL ugliness of his race and 
 the description given of him by a Byzantine ambassador must have been well known IN—THE—IMPERIAL—courts, 
Herbert has well versified the portrait drawn by Priscus of the great enemy of both Byzantium and ROMe:--
 "Terrific was his semblance, in no mould Of beautiful proportion cast;  
 his limbs Nothing exalted, but with sinews braced Of Chalybaean temper, agile, lithe,
 And swifter than the roe;  his ample chest Was overbrowed by a gigantic head,
 With eyes keen, deeply sunk, and , small, that gleam'd Strangely in wrath, 
as though some spirit unclean Within that corporal tenement installed Look'd from its windows, 
but with temper'd fire Beam'd mildly on the unresisting, 
Thin His beard and hoary;  his flat nostrils crown'd A cicatrised, swart visage,--but withal
 That questionable shape such glory wore That mortals quail'd beneath him."
 Two chiefs of THE—FRANKS, who were then settled on the lower Rhine, 
were at this period engaged in a feud with each other: and while one of them appealed to THE—ROMANs for aid, 
the other invoked the assistance and PROTECTION—OF—the Huns, 
ATTILA thus obtained an ally whose co-operation secured for ATTILA the —PASSAGE of the Rhine, and 
it was this circumstance which caused ATTILA to take a northward route from Hungary for his attack upon Gaul, 
The muster of the Hunnish hosts was swollen by warriors of every tribe that they had subjugated, 
 nor is there any reason to suspect the old chroniclers of wilful exaggeration in estimating ATTILA's army at seven hundred thousand strong, 
ATTILA, Having crossed the Rhine, probably a little below Coblentz, 
ATTILA defeated THE—KING—OF—THE—BURGUNDIANS, 
THE—KING—OF—THE—BURGUNDIANS endeavoured to bar ATTILA his progress, 
ATTILA then divided his vast forces into two armies,--one of which marched north-west upon Tongres and ARRAS, and 
the other cities of that part of FRANCE, 
 while the main body, under ATTILA himself marched up the Moselle, and , 
the main body, under ATTILA himself destroyed Besancon, and , 
the main body, under ATTILA himself destroyed other towns in THE—COUNTRY of THE—BURGundians, 
One of the latest and best biographers of ATTILA well observes, that, 
"having thus conquered the eastern part of FRANCE, ATTILA prepared for an —INVASÃON—OF—THE—WEST Gothic territories beyond the LOIRE, 
ATTILA marched upon Orleans, 
where ATTILA intended to force the —PASSAGE of that river, and 
only a little attention is requisite to enable us to perceive that ATTILA proceeded on a systematic plan: 
ATTILA had his right wing on the north, for THE—PROTECTION—OF—his Frank allies, 
ATTILA had his left wing on the south, for the purpose of preventing THE—BURGundians from rallying, and , 
of menacing the passes of the Alps from ITALY, and 
ATTILA led his centre towards THE—CHIEF object of the campaign--the conquest of Orleans, and , 
an easy —PASSAGE into THE—WEST Gothic dominion, 
18140000             ,in  The whole plan is very like that of the allied powers with this difference, 
that their left wing entered FRANCE through the defiles of the Jura, in the direction of LYONs, and , 
that the MILITARY object of THE—CAMPAIGN was the capture of PARIS." 
[Biographical Dictionary commenced by THE—USeful Knowledge Society in 1844]
04510000             It was not until—THE —YEAR that the Huns commenced —SIEGE—OF—Orleans; and 
04510000             —DURING—their campaign in Eastern Gaul, 
04510000             THE—ROMAN—GENERAL—AETIUS had strenuously exerted himself in collecting and organizing such an army 
as might, when united to the soldiery of the Visigoths, be fit to face the Huns in the field, 
THE—ROMAN—GENERAL—AETIUS enlisted every SUBJECT—OF—THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE whom patriotism, courage, or compulsion could collect beneath the standards;  
 and round these troops, which assumed the once proud title of the legions of ROMe, 
THE—ROMAN—GENERAL—AETIUS arrayed the large forces of barbaric auxiliaries whom pay, persuasion, or the general hate and dread of the Huns, 
brought to the camp of the last of THE—ROMAN—generals, 
King THEODOric exerted himself with equal energy, 
Orleans resisted her besiegers bravely as in after times, 
The —PASSAGE of the LOIRE was skilfully defended against the Huns;  
 and Aetius and THEODOric, 
after much manoeuvring and difficulty,
 effected a junction of their armies to the south of that important river.
 On the advance of THE—ALLIES upon Orleans, ATTILA instantly broke up —SIEGE—OF—that city, and , 
ATTILA retreated towards the Marne, 
ATTILA did not choose to risk a decisive battle with only THE—CENTRAL corps of his army against the combined power of his enemies;  and 
ATTILA therefore fell back upon his base of operations;  
ATTILA calling in his wings from ARRAS and Besancon, and , 
ATTILA concentrating the whole of the Hunnish forces on the vast plains of CHALONS-sur-Marne, 
A glance at the map will show how scientifically this place was chosen by the Hunnish general, 
as the point for his scattered forces to converge upon;  
 and the nature of the ground was eminently favourable for THE—OPERATIONs of cavalry, 
the arm in which ATTILA's strength peculiarly lay.
             —DURING—the retreat from Orleans It was that a CHRISTIAN Is reported to have approached the Hunnish king, and , 
said to him, 
"Thou art the Scourge of God for the chastisement of Christians." 
ATTILA instantly assumed this new title of terror, which thenceforth became the appellation by which ATTILA was most widely and most fearfully known.
 The confederate armies of ROMAns and Visigoths at last met their great adversary, face to face, on the ample battle-ground of the CHALONS plains, 
Aetius commanded on the right of THE—ALLIES;  
 King THEODOric commanded on the left of THE—ALLIES;;   and 
 SANGIPAN—KING—OF—THE—ALANS, whose fidelity was suspected, 
SANGIPAN—KING—OF—THE—ALANS was placed purposely in the centre and in the very front of the battle, 
ATTILA commanded his centre in person, 
at the HEAD—OF—his own countrymen, 
while the Ostrogoths, 
the Gepidae, and , 
the other subject allies of the Huns, 
were drawn up on the wings, 
Some manoeuvring appears to have occurred before the engagement, 
in which ATTILA had the advantage, 
inasmuch as he succeeded in occupying a sloping hill, 
which commanded the left flank of the Huns, 
ATTILA saw THE—IMPORTANCE of the position taken by Aetius on THE—HIGH ground, and , 
commenced the battle by a furious attack on this part of THE—ROMAN—line, 
in which he seems to have detached some of his best troops from his centre to aid his left.
 THE—ROMANs having the advantage of the ground, repulsed the Huns, and
 while THE—ALLIES gained this advantage on their right, 
their left, under King THEODOric, assailed the Ostrogoths, 
who formed the right of ATTILA's army, 
The gallant king was himself struck down by a javelin, as he rode onward at the HEAD—OF—his men, and , 
his own cavalry charging over him trampled him to death in the confusion, 
But the Visigoths, infuriated, not dispirited, by their monarch's fall, 
routed the enemies opposed to them, and , 
then wheeled upon the flank of the Hunnish centre,
 which had been engaged in a sanguinary and indecisive contest with the Alans.
 In this peril ATTILA made his centre fall back upon his camp, 
 the shelter of its entrenchments and waggons had once been gained,
 the Hunnish archers repulsed, 
without difficulty, 
the charges of the
 vengeful Gothic cavalry, 
Aetius had not pressed the advantage which he
 gained on his side of the field, 
when night fell over the wild
 scene of havoc, 
ATTILA's left was still unbroken, 
but his right had been
 routed, 
his centre forced back upon his camp.
 Expecting an —ASSAULT—ON—the morrow, 
ATTILA stationed his best archers
 in front of the cars and waggons, 
which were drawn up as a fortification
 along his lines, 
made every preparation for a desperate resistance.
 But the "Scourge of God" resolved that no man should boast of the honour of having either captured or slain him;  
 and he caused to be raised in the centre of his encampment a huge pyramid of the wooden saddles of his cavalry: 
 round it he heaped the spoils and the wealth that he had won;  
 on it he stationed his wives who had accompanied him IN—THE—CAMPAIGN;  
 and on the summit he placed himself, 
ready to perish in the flames, 
 baulk the victorious foe of their choicest booty, 
should they succeed in storming his defences.
 But when the morning broke, 
revealed the extent of the carnage, 
 which the plains were heaped for miles, 
the successful allies saw also and respected the resolute attitude of their antagonist, 
Neither were any measures taken to blockade him in his camp, 
so to extort by famine that submission which it was too plainly perilous to enforce with the sword, 
ATTILA was allowed to march back the remnants of his army without molestation, 
even with the semblance of success.
 It is probable that the crafty Aetius was unwilling to be too victorious, 
He dreaded the glory which his allies the Visigoths had acquired;  
 and feared that ROMe might find a second Alaric in Prince
 Thorismund, 
who had signalized himself in the battle, 
had been
 chosen on the field to succeed his father THEODOric, 
He persuaded the
 young king to return at once to his capital: and thus relieved himself
 —TIME—AT—THE—SAME of the presence of a dangerous friend, 
as well as of a
 formidable though beaten foe.
 ATTILA's attacks on THE—WESTern, 
empire were soon renewed, 
 but never
 with such peril to the civilized world as had menaced it before his
 defeat at CHALONS, 
And on his death, 
two years after that battle, 
 vast empire which his genius had FOUNDED was soon dissevered by the
 successful revolts of the subject nations, 
The name of the Huns ceased
 for some centuries to inspire TERROR—IN—Western Europe, 
 ascendency passed away with the life of the great king by whom it had
 been so fearfully augmented, 
[If I seem to have given fewer of the
 details of the battle itself than its importance would warrant, 
my
 excuse must be, 
that Gibbon has enriched our language with a description
 of it, 
too long for quotation and too splendid for rivalry, 
I have not,
taken altogether the same view of it that he has, 
The notes to
 Mister Herbert's poem of "ATTILA" bring together nearly all the authorities
 on the subject]
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN —BATTLE—OF—CHALONS, 
04510000, 
THE
07320000             .
04760000             THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE of THE—WEST extinguished by ODOACER.
04820000             Establishment of THE—FRENCH monarchy in Gaul by Clovis.
04550000—04820000    The Saxons, 
Angles, 
Frisians conquer BRITAIN except the northern parts, 
the districts along THE—WEST coast, 
THE—GERMAN—conquerors found 8 independent kingdoms.
05330000—05680000    The generals of JUSTINIAN, 
THE—EMPEROR—OF—Constantinople, 
conquer ITALY and NORTH—AFRICA;  
 and these countries are for a short time annexed to THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE—OF—THE—EAST.
05680000—05700000    The LOMBARDS conquer great part of ITALY.
05700000—06270000    THE—WARS BETWEEN THE—EMPERORs of Constantinople and the Kings
 of PERSIA are actively continued.
06220000             THE MAHOMETAN ERA OF THE HEGIRA, 
Mahomet is driven from Mecca, 
Mahomet is received as prince of MEDINA.
06290000—06320000    Mahomet conquers Arabia.
06320000—06510000    THE—MAHOMETAN—ARABS invade and conquer PERSIA.
06320000—07090000    THE—MAHOMETAN—ARABS attack THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE—OF—THE—EAST, 
             THE—MAHOMETAN—ARABS conquer SYRIA, 
             THE—MAHOMETAN—ARABS conquer Egypt, 
             THE—MAHOMETAN—ARABS conquer Africa.
07090000—07130000    —AND, THE—MAHOMETAN—ARABS cross THE—STRAITS—OF—GIBRALTAR, 
invade and conquer SPAIN.
06320000             in "At the death of Mohammad, 
06320000             his temporal and religious sovereignty embraced and was limited by THE—ARABIA—PENINSULA, 
06320000             THE—ROMAN—and PERSIAn empires, 
06320000             engaged in tedious and indecisive hostility upon the rivers of Mesopotamia and the Armenian mountains, 
06320000             were viewed by the ambitious fanatics of his creed as their quarry, 
In the very 1, year of Mohammad's immediate successor, Abubeker, 
each of these mighty empires was invaded, 
The crumbling fabric of Eastern despotism is never secured against rapid and total SUBVERSION, 
 a few victories, 
a few sieges, 
carried THE—ARABian arms from the Tigris to the Oxus, and
 overthrew, with THE—SASsanian dynasty, THE—ANCIENT and famous RELIGION they had professed, 
7—YEARS of active and unceasing warfare sufficed to subjugate the rich province of SYRIA, 
though defended by numerous armies and fortified cities, and 
the Khalif Omar had scarcely returned thanks for the accomplishment of this conquest, 
when Amrou, his lieutenant, announced to him the entire reduction of Egypt, 
After some,m. interval, 
THE—SARACENS won their way along THE—COAST—OF—Africa, as far as the Pillars of Hercules, 
a third province was irretrievably torn from the Greek empire, 
These western conquests introduced them to fresh enemies, 
ushered in more splendid successes, 
Encouraged by the disunion of the Visigoths, and , 
invited by treachery, MUSA, the general of a master who sat beyond the opposite extremity of the Mediterranean Sea, 
passed over into SPAIN, 
within about 2—YEARS the name of Mohammad was invoked under THE—PYRENEES."--[HALLAM]
 CHAPTER—VII
07320000             "THE—EVENTs that rescued our ancestors of BRITAIN, 
07320000             our neighbours of Gaul, 
from the civil and religious yoke of the Koran."--GIBBON.
 The broad tract of champaign country which intervenes between the cities
 of Poictiers and TOURS is principally composed of a succession of rich
 pasture lands, 
which are traversed and fertilized by the Cher, 
 Creuse, 
the VIENNE, 
the Claine, 
the Indre, 
other tributaries of
 the river LOIRE, 
Here and there, 
the ground swells into picturesque eminences;  and
 occasionally a belt of forest land, 
 a brown heath, 
or a clustering series of vineyards, 
breaks the monotony of the wide-spread meadows;  but 
 the general character of the land is that of a grassy plain, 
 it seems naturally adapted for the evolutions of numerous armies, 
 especially of those vast bodies of cavalry which, 
 principally decided the fate of nations 
             —DURING the centuries that followed the downFALL—OF—ROMe, 
 preceded the consolidation of the modern European powers.
 This region has been signalized by more than one memorable KONFLIKT;  but
 it is principally interesting to the historian,
 by having been the scen of
07320000             the great victory won by CHARLES Martel over THE—SARACENS, 
07320000             which gave a decisive check to the career of Arab conquest in Western Europe, 
07320000             rescued CHRISTENdom from ISLAM, 
07320000             preserved the relics of ancient and
07320000             the germs of modern civilization, 
07320000             re-established the old superiority of the INDO—EUROPEAN over the Semitic family of mankind.
07320000             Sismondi and Michelet have underrate the enduring interest of this great Appeal of Battle between the champions of the Crescent and the Cross, 
But, 
if French writers have slighted the exploits of their national hero, 
the Saracenic trophies of CHARLES Martel have had full justice done to them by English and German historians, 
Gibbon devotes several pages of his great work to 
07320000             the narrative of —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
to the consideration of the consequences which probably would have resulted, 
if ABDERRAHMAN's enterprise had not been crushed by the Frankish chief, 
[Vol, vii—PAGE—11, ET SEQ, Gibbon's remark, 
07320000             if the Saracen conquest had not then been checked, 
07320000             "Perhaps the interpretation of the Koran would now be taught —IN—THE—schools of Oxford, 
07320000             her pulpits might demonstrate to a circumcised people the sanctity and truth of THE—REVELATION of Mahomat," 
07320000             has almost an air of regret]
07320000             Schlegel speaks of this "mighty victory" in terms of fervent gratitude;  and
07320000             tells how "the arms of CHARLES Martel saved and delivered the CHRISTIAN nations of THE—WEST from the deadly grasp of all-destroying ISLAM;  "
[Philosophy of History—PAGE—331] 
07320000             Ranke points out, 
as "one of the most important epochs —IN—THE—HISTORY—OF—THE—WORLD, 
 the commencement of the 8. century;  
07320000             when, 
07320000             —ON, the one side Mahommedanism threatened to overspread ITALY and 
07320000             —ON, the one side Mahommedanism threatened to overspread Gaul, 
07320000             —ON, the other side THE—ANCIENT idolatry of SACHSEN and FRIESLAND once more forced its way ACROSS—THE—RHINE, 
07320000             In this peril of CHRISTIAN—Institutions, 
07320000             1 youthful prince of Germanic race, KARL—MARTELL, arose as their CHRISTIAN—Institutions champion;  
07320000             maintained them with all the energy which the necessity for self-defence calls forth, 
07320000             finally extended them into new regions." 
[HISTORY—OF—THE—REFORMATION in GERMANY, VOLUME—I—PAGE—5]
07320000             ROMe was almost delirious with joy: 
[See the splendid description in Livy—LIBER—xxvii—SECTION—50, 51]
07320000             so agonising had been the suspense with which the battle's verdict on that great issue of a nation's life and death had been awaited;  
07320000             so overpowering was the sudden reaction to the consciousness of security, 
07320000             so overpowering was the sudden reaction to the full glow of glory , success.
07320000             From the time when it had been known at ROMe that the armies were in presence of each other, 
07320000             THE—PEOPLE had never ceased to throng the forum,
07320000             the Conscript Fathers had been in permanent sitting at THE—SENATE house.
07320000             Ever and anon a fearful whisper crept among the crowd of a second CANNAE won by a second HANNIBAL, 
Then came truer rumours that THE—DAY was ROMe's;  but 
THE—PEOPLE were sick at heart, 
 heeded them not, 
The shrines were thronged with trembling women, 
who seemed to weary heaven with prayers to shield them from the brutal Gaul and 
who seemed to weary heaven with prayers to shield them from the savage African.
It was said that 
two Narnian horseman had ridden from THE—EAST into THE—ROMAN—camp of observation in Umbria, 
 had brought tidings of the utter slaughter of the foe, 
 Men tortured their neighbours and themselves by demonstrating its improbability and
 by ingeniously criticising its evidence, 
Soon, however, 
LUCIUS Manlius Acidinus commanded in Umbria, 
who announced THE—ARRIVAL—OF—the Narnian horsemen in his camp, 
and then before the ASSEMBLY—OF—THE—PEOPLE, 
The letter was read and re-read aloud to thousands, 
 even this was insufficient to allay the feverish anxiety that thrilled through every breast in ROMe, 
The letter might be a forgery: 
the Narnian horseman might be traitors or impostors, 
"We must see officers from THE—ARMY that fought, 
or 
hear despatches from THE—KONSULS themselves, 
 then only will we believe." 
 Such was THE—PUBLIC sentiment, 
 some of more hopeful nature ALREADY permitted themselves a foretaste of joy.
 At length came news that officers who really had been in the battle were near at hand, 
each person coveting to be the 1, 
to receive with his own eyes and ears convincing proofs of the reality of such a deliverance, 
One vast throng of human beings filled the road from ROMe to the Milvian bridge, 
The 3 officers, 
 Quintus Caecilius Metellus 
 came riding on, 
making their way slowly through the living sea around them, 
 As they advanced, 
each told the successive waves of eager questioners that ROMe was victorious, 
"We have destroyed HASDRUBAL and his army, 
our KONSULs are unhurt." 
Each happy listener, 
who caught the welcome sounds from their lips, 
where the despatches were read AGAIN;  
 and then the senior officer, 
gave in his own words a fuller detail of how went the fight, 
When he had done speaking to THE—PEOPLE, 
an universal shout of rapture rent the air, 
The vast assembly then separated: some hastening to the temples to find in devotion a vent for the overflowing excitement of their hearts;  
 others seeking their homes to gladden their wives and children with the good news, 
were safe from outrage and slaughter, 
THE—SENATE ordained a thanksgiving of 3 days for the great deliverance which had been vouchsafed to ROMe;  
 and —THROUGHOUT that period the temples were incessantly crowded with exulting worshippers;  
as if all apprehension of evil were over, 
 With the revival of confidence came also the revival of activity in traffic and commerce, 
once more men bought and sold, 
 the crisis of THE—WAR-fever was past, 
had not only
 determined THE—EVENT of the strife between ROMe and CARTHAGE, 
her
were no longer in danger from his arms, 
after HANNIBAL's
 downfall, 
the great MILITARY republic of THE—ANCIENT world met in her
 career of conquest no other worthy competitor, 
Byron has termed NERO's
 march "unequalled," and, 
it is
_0205000_02010000    RÖMER—KONSUL—PUBLIUS—SCIPIO is made 
 SCIPIO gains several victories there, 
THE—CARTHAGINIANS recall HANNIBAL from ITALY to oppose him, 
_02010000            —BATTLE—OF—Zama in : 
_02010000            HANNIBAL is defeated, 
 End of the second PUNIC—WAR, 
 virtually predominant in NORTH—AFRICA.
_2000000             ROMe makes war upon PHILIP, 
She pretends to take the Greek cities of the Achaean league and THE—AETOLIANs under her protection as allies, 
_01980000            PHILIP is defeated by the proKONSUL Flaminius at Cynocephalae, 
;  
 and begs for peace, 
The Macedonian influence is now
 completely destroyed in Greece, 
THE—ROMAN—established in its stead,
 though ROMe nominally acknowledged the independence of the Greek cities.
_01900000            He is completely defeated at —BATTLE—OF—Magnesia, 
 is glad to accept peace on conditions which leave him dependent upon ROMe.
the general state
 of affairs entirely changed, 
If ROMe was NOT—YET the ruler, 
she was at
 least the arbitress of THE—WORLD from THE—ATLANTIC to THE—EUphrates, 
The power of the 3 principal states was so completely humbled, 
 the fourth, 
02010000             ,
placed herself under THE—GUARDIANship of ROMe;  
 and the lesser powers followed of themselves: esteeming it an honour to be called THE—ALLIES of ROMe, 
With this name the nations were lulled into security, 
 the new political —SYSTEM of ROMe was FOUNDED and strengthened partly by
 exciting and supporting the weaker states against the stronger, 
 unjust the cause of THE—FORMER—might be, 
partly by factions which
 she found means to raise in every state, 
Destruction of the Macedonian monarchy.
 150, 
ROMe oppresses THE—CARTHAGINIANS till they are driven to take up
 arms, 
the third PUNIC—WAR begins, 
CARTHAGE is taken and destroyed by
 SCIPIO—AEMILIANUS, 
146, 
the Carthaginian territory is made a ROMAn
 province.
 146, 
IN—THE—SAME—YEAR in which CARTHAGE falls, 
Corinth is stormed by
 THE—ROMAN—army under Mummius, 
The Achaean league had been goaded into
 hostilities with ROMe, 
by means similar to those employed against
The greater part of Southern Greece is made a ROMAn province,
 under the name of Achaia.
 133, 
Numantium is destroyed by SCIPIO—AEMILIANUS, 
"THE—WAR—AGAINST—the
 Spaniards, 
defended their
 liberty with the greatest obstinacy, 
began —J—IM, 200, 
6—YEARS
 after the total expulsion of THE—CARTHAGINIANS from their country,
 206, 
It was exceedingly obstinate, 
partly from the natural state of the
where every place became a
 fortress, 
 partly from the courage of the inhabitants, 
 but at last all,
 owing to the peculiar policy of THE—ROMAN—S, 
who yielded to employ their
 allies to subdue other nations, 
almost without
 interruption, 
was for the most part
 carried on —TIME—AT—THE—SAME in HISPANIA Citerior, 
where the Celtiberi
 were the most formidable adversaries, 
in HISPANIA—ULTERIOR, 
 the Lusitani were equally powerful, 
when the Celtiberi were attacked in their
 native territory, 
 and 155—150, 
when THE—ROMANs in both provinces were so
 often beaten, 
that nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than
 to be sent there, 
The extortions and perfidy of Servius Galba placed
soon extended itself to HISPANIA Citerior, 
where many
 nations, 
143.
was never more
 formidable than in the moment of defeat, 
 because he knew how to take
 advantage of his knowledge of THE—COUNTRY and of the dispositions of his
After his murder, 
140,
 LUSITANIA was subdued; but 
the Numantine war became still more violent, 
_01370000            the Numantines compelled THE—KONSUL—MANCINUS to a disadvantageous treaty, 
_01330000            —J—IM, When SCIPIO,, 
put an end to this war, 
SPAIN was certainly tranquil;  
 134, 
Commencement of THE—REVOLUTIONary century at ROMe, 
from the time of the excitement produced by the attempts made by the Gracchi
 to reform the commonwealth, 
to —BATTLE—OF—ACTIUM (
_0031), 
which established OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR as sole master of THE—ROMAN—WORLD.
NUMIDIA is conquered, 
_01020000            attempt to penetrate into ITALY, 
THE—MILITARY genius of Marius here saves his country;  
 he defeats the Teutones near Aix, 
in PROVENCE;  
 and in the following year he destroys THE—ARMY of the Cimbri,
 who had passed the Alps, 
KING—OF—Pontus,
 Mithridates the Great, 
KING—OF—Pontus had overrun Asia Minor, 
 Sylla defeats Mithridates the Great, 
KING—OF—Pontus his armies, 
 Sylla forces Mithridates the Great, 
KING—OF—Pontus to withdraw his forces from Europe, 
 Sylla returns to ROMe to carry on the CIVIL—WAR against the son and partisans of Marius, 
 Sylla makes himself Dictator.
after Lucullus 
POMPEIUS,
while 
 designing to raise THE—WARlike tribes of the Danube against ROMe, 
 Great Asiatic conquests of THE—ROMAN—S, 
 Besides 
 THE—ANCIENT province of Pergamus, 
 nearly all Paphlagonia and Pontus, 
 On the other hand, 
 Great Armenia is left to Tigranes;  
 Judaea to Hyrcanus; and 
 some other small states are also given to petty princes, 
_00540000            CRASSUS is overthrown and 
_00540000            † CRASSUS, 
killed at Carrhae in Mesopotamia, 
_00540000            CRASSUS His lieutenant CASSIUS prevents THE—PARTHIANs from conquering SYRIA.
_00490000_00450000   CAESAR drives POMPEIUS out of ITALY, 
_00490000_00450000   CAESAR conquers his enemy's forces in SPAIN, 
POMPEIUS flies for refuge to Alexandria, 
where he is assassinated, 
who had followed him
 thither, 
is involved in a war with THE—EGYPTIANS, 
in which he is finally
CAESAR next
 marches into Pontus, 
who had taken
 part IN—THE—WAR—AGAINST—him, 
He then proceeds to THE—ROMAN—province of
Brutus and CASSIUS being at the HEAD—OF—the aristocratic party,
 and the party of CAESAR being led by MARK—ANTONY and OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR,
 afterwards AUGUSTUS.
 42, 
Defeat and death of Brutus and CASSIUS at PHILIPPi, 
Dissensions soon
 break out between OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR and Antony.
 31, 
Antony is completely defeated by OCTAVIANUS—CAESAR at ACTIUM.
 He flies to Egypt with Cleopatra, 
Octavianus pursues him, 
Antony
 and Cleopatra kill themselves, 
Egypt becomes a ROMAn province, 
all that is
 ROMe's, 
THE—STATE—OF—THE—ROMAN—WORLD —AT—THIS—TIME is best described
 in two lines of TACITUS:--"POSTQUAM bellatum apud ACTIUM, 
atque OMNEM
 POTESTATEM AD UNUM CONFERRI PACIS INTERFUIT." (Hist, 
 The 44th year of THE—REIGN—OF—Augustus, 
the 1st year of the 195th
 Olympiad, 
is commonly assigned as the date of THE NATIVITY OF OUR LORD.
 There is much of the beauty of holiness in the remarks with which the
 American historian, 
Eliot, 
closes his survey of the conquering career
 and civil downFALL—OF—THE—ROMAN—Commonwealth:--
 "So far as humility amongst men was necessary for the preparation of
 a truer freedom than could ever be known under heathenism, 
the part
 of ROMe, 
however dreadful was yet sublime, 
It was not to unite, 
 discipline, 
or to fortify humanity, 
but to enervate, 
to loosen, 
 to scatter its forces, 
that THE—PEOPLE whose history we have read were
 allowed to conquer the earth, 
were then themselves reduced to deep
 submission, 
by reason
 of what we esteem its failure, 
a step gained nearer to the end of the
 well-nigh universal evil that prevailed, 
 while every bad achievement
 that may seem to us to have succeeded, 
a progress towards the good
 of which the coming would have been longed and prayed for, 
could it have
 been comprehended, 
Alike in the virtues and in the vices of antiquity,
 we may read the progress towards its humiliation, 
["The CHRISTIAN
 revelation," says Leland, 
in his truly admirable work on the subject
 (VOLUME—I—PAGE—488), 
"was made to THE—WORLD at a time when it was most
 wanted, 
 when the darkness and corruption of mankind were arrived at the
 height..., 
-- VICTORY—OF—ARMINIUS OVER THE—ROMAN—LEGIONS UNDER VARUS,
00090000             .
ut Imperium quod in littore oceani non
 steterat, 
whose reverses as a minister can never
 obscure his achievements IN—THE—WORLD of letters, 
 the most profound and most eloquent estimate that we possess of the
 importance of the Germanic element in European civilization, 
 extent to which the human race is indebted to those brave warriors,
 who long were the unconquered antagonists, 
finally became the
 conquerors, 
 Twenty-3 eventful years have passed away since M, 
Guizot delivered
 from the chair of modern history at PARIS his course of lectures on
 the HISTORY—OF—Civilization in Europe, 
             —DURING those years the spirit
 of earnest inquiry into the germs and —EARLY, developments of existing
 institutions has become more and more active and universal, 
 merited celebrity of M, 
Its
 admirable analysis of the complex political and social ORGANIZATIONs of
 which the modern civilized world is made up, 
by which the
 characteristics of the present were determined, 
The narrative of one of
 these great crises, 
Our
 language alone decisively proves this, 
ARMINIUS is far more truly one
 of our national heroes than Caractacus: and it was our own primeval
 fatherland that the brave German rescued, 
when he slaughtered THE—ROMAN
 legions 18 centuries ago in the marshy glens between the LIPPE and
 the Ems, 
remarks on the relationship between the Cherusci and
 THE—ENGLISH]
 prospects of GERMANY when ARMINIUS planned the general rising of his
 countrymen against ROMe, 
Half the land was occupied by ROMAn garrisons; and, 
what was worse, 
many of THE—GERMANS seemed patiently acquiescent
 in their state of bondage, 
whose patriotism could
 be relied on, 
was ill-armed and undisciplined, 
 while the enemy's troops
 consisted of veterans IN—THE—HIGHest state of equipment and training,
commanded by officers of proved skill and
 valour, 
The resources of ROMe seemed boundless, 
 her tenacity of purpose
 was believed to be invincible, 
There was no hope of foreign sympathy or
 aid, 
 ignorance of the might of his adversary, 
He was familiar with THE—ROMAN
 language and civilization, 
 he had served IN—THE—ROMAN—armies, 
 he had
 been admitted to THE—ROMAN—citizenship, 
raised to the dignity of
 the equestrian order, 
It was part of the subtle policy of ROMe to confer
 rank and privileges on the youth of the leading families in the nations
 which she wished to enslave, 
Among other young German chieftains,
 ARMINIUS and his brother, 
who were the heads of THE—NOBLESt house in the
 tribe of the Cherusci, 
had been selected as fit objects for the exercise
 of this insidious system, 
ROMAn refinements and dignities succeeded in
 denationalizing the brother, 
 remained unbought by honours or wealth, 
uncorrupted by refinement or
 luxury, 
He aspired to and obtained from ROMAn enmity a higher title than
 ever could have been given him by ROMAn favour, 
It is in the page of
 ROMe's greatest historian, 
that his name has come down to us with the
 proud addition of "Liberator haud dubie Germaniae." 
while meditating the exploit which has
 thus immortalised him, 
 of the many great men who had been crushed in the attempt which he was
 about to renew,--the attempt to stay the chariot-wheels of triumphant
Could he hope to succeed where HANNIBAL and Mithridates had
 perished? What had been the doom of Viriathus? and what warning against
 vain valour was written on the desolate site where Numantia once had
 fourished? Nor was a caution wanting in scenes nearer home and in
 more recent times, 
The GAULS had fruitlessly struggled for 8—YEARS
 against CAESAR, 
 and the valiant —CHEF—GAULOIS—VERCINGÉTORIX, 
who in the last year of
 THE—WAR had roused all his countrymen to INSURRECTION, 
who had cut off
 ROMAn detachments, 
brought CAESAR himself to the extreme of peril at
 ALESIA--he, 
had finally succumbed, 
had been led captive in CAESAR's
 triumph, 
had then been butchered in cold blood in a ROMAn dungeon.
 It was true that ROMe was no longer the great MILITARY republic which
 for so many ages had shattered the kingdoms of THE—WORLD, 
Her system
 of government was changed, 
after 100—YEARS of REVOLUTION and civil
 war, 
she had placed herself under the despotism of a single ruler, 
 the discipline of her troops was yet unimpaired, 
her warlike spirit
 seemed unabated, 
The 1, 
wars of THE—EMPIRE had been signalised by
 conquests as valuable as any gained by the republic in a corresponding
 period, 
though apparently sanctioned by great
 authorities, 
to suppose that the FOREIGN—POLICY pursued by AUGUSTUS
 was pacific, 
He certainly recommended such a policy to his successors,
 either from timidity, 
or from jealousy of their fame outshining his
 own, 
but he himself,
 until ARMINIUS broke his spirit, 
in a series of principally
 aggressive campaigns, 
had extended THE—ROMAN—frontier from the Alps
 to the Danube, 
in a series of victorious
 campaigns, 
 many places the soil, 
VARUS resolved on pressing
 forward, 
 falling round him without the opportunity of retaliation, 
 for his
 light-armed auxiliaries, 
Choosing one of the
 most open and firm spots which they could force their way to, 
 halted for the night, 
faithful to their national discipline and
the traces
 of which are impressed permanently on the soil of so many European
attesting the presence in the olden time of the imperial
 eagles.
 On the morrow THE—ROMANs renewed their march, 
 the veteran officers who
 served under VARUS now probably directing THE—OPERATIONs, 
hoping
 to find THE—GERMANS drawn up to meet them, 
 in which case they relied on
 their own superior discipline and tactics for such a victory as
 should reassure the supremacy of ROMe, 
But ARMINIUS was far too sage a
 commander to lead on his followers, 
fully armed
 with helmet, 
shield, 
 who were skilled to commence
 the KONFLIKT with a murderous volley of heavy javelins, 
with their short cut-and-thrust
 swords, 
to hew their way through all opposition, 
 preserving the utmost
 steadiness and coolness, 
In the midst
 of strife and slaughter with the same precision and alertness as if upon
 parade, 
[See Gibbon's description (VOLUME—I.CHAPTER—I) of THE—ROMAN—legions
 in the time of AUGUSTUS, 
lib.
 i) of the subsequent battles between Caecina and ARMINIUS] 
 line for ACTION, 
only
 harassed by slight skirmishes, 
but struggling with difficulty through
 the broken ground, 
 Their line became less steady, 
 baggage-waggons were abandoned from
 the impossibility of forcing them along, 
many
 soldiers left their ranks and crowded round the waggons to secure the
 most valuable portions of their property, 
 each was busy about his own
 affairs, 
 and those
 prisoners who were not hewn to pieces on the spot, 
were only preserved
 to perish by a more cruel death in cold blood.
frequently
 repelling the masses of the assailants, 
becoming weaker and weaker beneath the
 incessant shower of darts and the reiterated assaults of the vigorous
in a series of desperate attacks the
 column was pierced through and through, 
which on the yester morning had marched forth in such
 pride and might, 
or perished in
 the swamps and woods in unavailing efforts at flight, 
One body of brave veterans,
 arraying themselves in a ring on a little mound, 
prolonged their honourable resistance to the close
 of that dreadful day, 
 and mound attested in after years the spot where the last of THE—ROMAN—S
 passed their night of suffering and despair, 
was charged by the
 victorious Germans, 
 fearful rites at the alters of the deities of the old mythology of the
 North.
through which runs the modern road
 between PADERBORN and Pyrmont, 
a cluster of bold and grotesque rocks
 of sandstone, 
overshadowed by a
 grove of aged trees, 
this was one of the
 sacred groves of THE—ANCIENT Germans, 
apud quas tribunos ac primorum ordinam
 centuriones mactaverant."--TACITUS, 
never was the liberation of an
 oppressed people more instantaneous and complete, 
Throughout GERMANY the
 ROMAn garrisons were assailed and cut off, 
within a few weeks after
 VARUS had fallen, 
did they not come
 from ROMAn historians themselves, 
These passages IN—THE—ROMAN—writers
 not only tell emphatically how great was the awe which THE—ROMANs felt
but also they reveal bow weakened and
 debased the population of ITALY had become, 
[It is clear that THE—ROMAN—S
 followed the policy of fomenting dissension and wars of THE—GERMANS
 among themselves, 
See the thirty-third section of the "Germania" of
 neighbouring tribes: "Favore quodam erga nos deorum: nam ne spectaculo
 quidem proelii invidere: super LX, 
Maneat
 quaeso, 
in ripa Rheni fluminis
 staret" (iv, 
[In
 the Museum of Rhenish antiquities at BONN there is a ROMAn sepulchral
 In the following year THE—ROMANs were inactive, but 
when we shall meet
 In combat face to face,
 Then only would ARMINIUS greet
 The renegade's embrace.
 The canker of ROMe's guilt shall be
 Upon his dying name; And as he lived in slavery,
 So shall he fall in shame.
 ARMINIUS was successful, 
But on the succeeding day a general ACTION was
 fought, 
THE—GERMAN—infantry
 routed with heavy loss, 
The horsemen of the two armies encountered
 without either party gaining the advantage, 
But THE—ROMAN—army remained
 master of the ground, 
Germanicus erected
 a trophy in the field, 
 between the Rhine and the ELBE had been thoroughly conquered by his
 army, 
But that army speedily made a final retreat to the left bank of
 the Rhine, 
 nor was the effect of their campaign more durable than their
 trophy, 
may apply to the pageant which
 Germanicus celebrated on his return to ROMe from his command of the
THE—GERMANS were "TRIUMPHATI POTIUS QUAM
 VICTI."
we find
 ARMINIUS engaged in hostilities with Maroboduus, 
 and Marcomanni who was endeavouring to bring the other German tribes
 into a state of dependency on him, 
a pitched battle was fought between the
 two confederacies, 
00160000             ,
in which the loss on each side was equal; but Maroboduus confessed the ascendency of his antagonist by avoiding
 a renewal of the engagement, 
The younger DRUSUS then commanded THE—ROMAN
 legions in the province of Illyricum, 
by his mediation a peace was
 concluded between ARMINIUS and Maroboduus, 
by the terms of which it
 is evident that the latter must have renounced his ambitious schemes
 against the freedom of the other German tribes.
 ARMINIUS did not long survive this second WAR—OF—independence, 
 he successfully waged for his country, 
He was assassinated in the
 thirty-seventh year of his age, 
by some of his own kinsmen, 
 conspired against him, 
TACITUS says that this happened while he was
 he combated so long and so gloriously have delighted to honour, 
It is
 from the most indisputable source, 
from the lips of enemies, 
 we know his exploits, 
[See TACITUS, 
LIBER—ii—SECTION—88, 
 Velleius
 Paterculus—LIBER—ii—SECTION—118] 
His country men made history, 
but did
 not write it, 
But his memory lived among them in the lays of their
 bards, 
who recorded
 "The deeds he did, 
the fields he won, 
The freedom he restored."
many years after the death of ARMINIUS, 
says of him, 
"Canitur
 adhuc barbaras apud gentes." As time passed on, 
the gratitude of ancient
 GERMANY to her great deliverer grew into adoration, 
divine honours
 were paid —FOR—CENTURIES to ARMINIUS by every tribe of the Low Germanic
 DIVISION—OF—THE—TEUTONIC races, 
The Irmin-sul, 
or the column of Herman,
 near Eresburg, 
the modern Stadtberg, 
was the chosen object of worship to
 the descendants of the Cherusci, 
in defence of which
 they fought most desperately against Charlemagne and his christianized
"Irmin, 
in the cloudy Olympus of Teutonic belief, 
appears as a
 king and a warrior, 
 and the pillar, 
the 'Irmin-sul,' bearing the statue,
 and considered as the symbol of the deity, 
was the Palladium of the
 Saxon nation, 
until the temple of Eresburg was destroyed by Charlemagne,
 and the column itself transferred to the monastery of Corbey, 
where,
 perhaps, 
a portion of the rude rock idol yet remains, 
covered by the
 ornaments of the Gothic era." 
[Palgrave on THE—ENGLISH Commonwealth,
 VOLUME—II—PAGE—140]
 Traces of the worship of ARMINIUS are to be found among our ANGLO—SAXON
 ancestors, 
after their settlement in this ISLAND, 
One of the 4 great
 highways was held to be under THE—PROTECTION—OF—the deity, 
 called the "Irmin-street." The name ARMINIUS is, 
of course, 
the mere
 Latinized form of "Herman," the name by which the hero and the deity
 were known by every man of Low German blood, 
on either side of the
 German Sea, 
It means, 
etymologically, 
the "War-man," the "man of hosts."
 of the "Irmin-street," is so satisfactory as that which connects them
 with the deified ARMINIUS, 
We know for certain of the existence of other
 columns of an analogous character, 
there was the ROLAND-seule
 in NORTH—GERMANY, 
(what is
 more important) there was an Athelstan-seule in Saxon ENGLAND, 
 Lappenburg's ANGLO—SAXONs—PAGE—378, 
For nearly all the philological and
 ethnographical facts respecting ARMINIUS, 
I am indebted to Dr, 
R, 
G.
 Latham]
 There is at the present moment a song respecting the Irmin-sul current
 in the bishopric of Minden, 
one version of which might seem only to
 refer to Charlemagne having pulled down the Irmin-sul:--
 "Un Herman slaug dermen, 
slaug trummen; De fursten sind kammen,
[See Grimm, 
Deutsche Mythologie—PAGE—329]
the modern Germans
 conceived the idea of rendering tardy homage to their great hero, 
 accordingly some 8 or 10—YEARS—AGO, 
a general subscription was
 organized in GERMANY, 
for the purpose of erecting on the OSNING--a
 conical mountain, 
which forms THE—HIGHest summit of the Teutoberger
 Wald, 
The height of the statue was to be eighty feet from
 the base to the point of the sword, 
was to stand on a circular
 Gothic temple, 
 The mountain, 
where it was to be erected, 
is wild and stern, 
The temple is
 nearly finished, 
the statue itself has been cast at the copper works
 at Lemgo, 
it has lain for
 some years, 
in disjointed fragments, 
exposed to the mutilating homage
 of relic-seeking travellers, 
The idea of honouring a hero who belongs to
 ALL GERMANY, 
is not one which the present rulers of that divided country
 have any wish to encourage, 
 and the statue may long continue to lie
 there, 
VARUS was
 defeated on THE—ANNIVERSARY—OF—THE—DAY—ON—WHICH Paulus and Varro were
 defeated by HANNIBAL.
THE DELIVERER OF GERMANY
 FROM THE—ROMANs.
 --So ended the 1, 
THE—ROMAN—chief, 
 and Herrman spake
 Not, 
 The god against the marble pillars, 
wrung
 By the dred words, 
striking his brow, 
thrice
 Cried he aloud in anguish--"VARUS!  
 The lance to raise;  
still they shrunk and feared;  
 "For she her face hath turned,
[Notes:--THE—BATTLE—OF—CANNAE,_0216--HANNIBAL's victory over THE—ROMAN—S, 
Winfield--the probable site of the "Herrmanschladt." See SUPRA.
I have taken this translation from an anonymous writer in FRASER, 
2—YEARS—AGO]
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN ARMINIUS'S VICTORY OVER VARUS, 
THE —BATTLE—OF—CHALONS.
00430000             , 
THE—ROMANs commence the conquest of BRITAIN, 
CLAUDIUS being
 then EMPEROR—OF—Rome, 
The population of this ISLAND was then Celtic, 
 In about 40—YEARS all the tribes south of the Clyde were subdued, 
In about 40—YEARS all the tribes south of the Clyde their land made a ROMAn province.
_00680000_00600000   Successful campaigns of THE—ROMAN—GENERAL—CORBULO against the  Parthians.
 64, 
1, 
persecution of the Christians at ROMe under NERO.
 68-70, 
CIVIL—WARs IN—THE—ROMAN—WORLD, 
THE—EMPERORs NERO, 
Galba, 
Otho,
 and VITELLIUS, 
cut off successively by violent deaths, 
VESPASIAN becomes
 emperor.
 70, 
Jerusalem destroyed by THE—ROMANs under TITUS.
 83, 
Futile attack of DOMITIAN on THE—GERMANS.
 86, 
Beginning of THE—WARs between THE—ROMANs and the Dacians.
 98—117, 
TRAJAN, 
EMPEROR—OF—Rome, 
Under him THE—EMPIRE acquires its
 greatest territorial extent by his conquests in Dacia and in THE—EAST.
 His successor, 
HADRIAN, 
abandons the provinces beyond THE—EUphrates,
 which TRAJAN had conquered.
 138—180, 
Era of the Antonines.
 167—176, 
A long and desperate WAR—BETWEEN—Rome and a great confederacy
 of THE—GERMAN—nations, 
MARCUS—ANTONINUS at last succeeds in repelling them.
 192—197, 
CIVIL—WARs —THROUGHOUT THE—ROMAN—WORLD, 
 He relaxes the discipline of the soldiers, 
After his death in 211, 
 series of MILITARY INSURRECTIONs, 
CIVIL—WARs, 
murders of emperors
 recommences.
 226, 
[ARDISHEER]ARTAXERXES overthrows THE—PARTHIAN, 
restores the
 PERSIAn kingdom in Asia, 
He attacks THE—ROMAN—POSSESSIONs in THE—EAST.
 260, 
THE—GOTHS invade THE—ROMAN—provinces, 
THE—EMPEROR—Decius is
 defeated and slain by them.
 253-260, 
THE—FRANKS and ALEMANNI invade Gaul, 
Africa, 
 Goths attack Asia Minor and Greece, 
THE—PERSIANS conquer Armenia, 
Their
 king, 
Sapor, 
defeats THE—ROMAN—EMPEROR—VALERIAN, 
takes him prisoner.
 GENERAL distress of THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE.
 268—283, 
THE—EMPERORs CLAUDIUS, 
AURELIAN, 
TACITUS, 
PROBUS, 
CARUS
 defeat the various enemies of ROMe, 
restore order in THE—ROMAN
 state.
 285, 
KAISER—DIOCLETIANUS divides and reorganizes THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE, 
After his
 abdication in 305 a fresh series of CIVIL—WARs and confusion ensues.
 CONSTANTINE, 
the 1, 
CHRISTIAN emperor, 
reunites THE—EMPIRE in 324.
 330, 
CONSTANTINE makes Constantinople the seat of empire instead of
 ROMe.
 363, 
THE—EMPEROR—JULIAN is killed in ACTION—AGAINST—THE—PERSIANS.
 364-375, 
THE—EMPIRE is AGAIN divided, 
VALENTINIAN being EMPEROR—OF—the
 West, 
VALENS of THE—EAST, 
VALENTINIAN repulses the ALEMANNI, 
 other German invaders from Gaul, 
Splendour of the Gothic kingdom under
 Hermanric, 
north of the Danube.
 376-395, 
The Huns attack THE—GOTHS, 
who implore THE—PROTECTION—OF—the
 ROMAN—EMPEROR—OF—THE—EAST, 
THE—GOTHS are allowed to pass the Danube, 
 to settle IN—THE—ROMAN—provinces, 
A war soon breaks out between them and
THE—EMPEROR—Valens and his army are destroyed by them.
 They ravage THE—ROMAN—territories, 
THE—EMPEROR—des THEODOSIUS reduces them
 to submission, 
They retain settlements in Thrace and Asia Minor.
 395, 
Final DIVISION—OF—THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE between ARCADIUS and HONORIUS,
 the two sons of des THEODOSIUS, 
THE—GOTHS revolt, 
under Alaric THE—GOTHS attack various parts of both THE—ROMAN—EMPIREs.
04100000             Alaric takes THE—CITY—OF—Rome., 
04120000             Alaric takes THE—CITY—OF—Rome.
THE—GOTHS march into Gaul, 
and , in 
BRITAIN is formally abandoned by THE—ROMAN—EMPEROR—OF—THE—WEST.
 428, 
Genseric, 
KING—OF—the Vandals, 
conquers THE—ROMAN—province of North
 Africa.
 441, 
The Huns attack THE—EASTern empire.
 "The discomfiture of the mighty attempt of ATTILA to found a new
 ANTI—Christian dynasty upon the wreck of the temporal power of
at the end of the term of twelve hundred years, 
to which
 its duration had been limited by the forebodings of the
 heathen."--HERBERT.
 A broad expanse of plains, 
the Campi Catalaunici of THE—ANCIENTs,
 spreads far and wide around THE—CITY—OF—CHALONS, 
in the north-east of
 FRANCE, 
The long rows of poplars, 
through which the river Marne winds
 its way, 
a few thinly-scattered villages, 
are almost the only
 objects that vary the monotonous aspect of the greater part of this
 region, 
But about 5 miles from CHALONS, 
near the little hamlets of
 Chaps and Cuperly, 
the ground is indented and heaped up in ranges of
 grassy mounds and trenches, 
which attest the work of man's hand in ages
 past, 
 and which, 
to the practised eye, 
demonstrate that this quiet spot
 has once been the fortified position of a huge MILITARY host.
 Local tradition gives to these ancient earthworks the name of ATTILA's
 Camp, 
Nor is there any reason to question the correctness of the title,
 or to doubt that behind these very ramparts it was that, 
[See the
—INTRODUCTIOn to Ranke's HISTORY—OF—the PAPAs] 
VOLUME—iii, 
p.
 423] 
at
 the FALL—OF—THE—WESTern Empire, 
 "It affects, 
more or less, 
the whole west of Europe, 
from the head of
 the Gulf of Bothnia to the most southern promontory of Sicily, 
 Oder and the Adriatic to the Hebrides and to Lisbon, 
It is true that the
 language spoken over a large portion of this space is not predominantly
 German, 
 but even in FRANCE, 
the influence of the
Burgundians, 
Visigoths, 
Ostrogoths, 
Lombards, 
while it has
 coloured even the language, 
has in blood and institutions left its MARK
 legibly and indelibly, 
was by far the 1, 
But it is at least certain that the Magyars of
 Arpad, 
who are the immediate ancestors of the bulk of the modern
 Hungarians, 
who conquered THE—COUNTRY which bears the name of
 Hungary in 0889, 
were of the same stock of mankind as were the Huns
 of ATTILA, 
even if they did not belong to the same subDIVISION—OF—that
 stock, 
Nor is there any improbability in the tradition, 
that after
 ATTILA's death many of his warriors remained in Hungary, 
that their
 descendants afterwards joined the Huns of Arpad in their career of
 conquest, 
 It seems also susceptible of clear proof that THE—TERRITORY was then
 called Hungvar, 
ATTILA's soldiers Hungvari, 
Both the Huns of ATTILA
 and those of Arpad came from the family of nomadic nations, 
 primitive regions were those vast wildernesses of High Asia which are
 included between the Altaic and the Himalayan mountain-chains, 
 inroads of these tribes upon the lower regions of Asia and into Europe,
 have caused many of the most remarkable REVOLUTIONs —IN—THE—HISTORY of
 THE—WORLD, 
There is every reason to believe that swarms of these nations
 made their way into distant parts of the earth, 
at periods long before
 the date of the Scythian —INVASÃON—OF—Asia, 
which is the earliest inroad
 of the nomadic race that history records, 
The 1., 
as far as we can
 conjecture, 
in respect to the time of their descent were the Finnish and
 Ugrian tribes, 
who appear to have come down from the Asiatic border of
 High Asia towards the north-west, 
in which direction they advanced
 to the Uralian mountains, 
There they established themselves: and that
 mountain chain, 
with its valleys and pasture-lands, 
became to them a
 new country, 
whence they sent out colonies on every side, 
 but the Ugrian
 colony, 
which under Arpad occupied Hungary, 
became THE—ANCESTORS of
 the bulk of the present Hungarian nation, 
did not quit their settlements
 on the Uralian mountains till a very late period, 
not until four
 centuries after the time when ATTILA led from the primary seats of the
 nomadic races in High Asia the host with which he advanced into the
 heart of FRANCE, 
[See Prichard's Researches into the Physical History of
 Mankind] 
That host was Turkish, 
 but closely allied in origin, 
language,
 and habits, 
with the Finno-Ugrian settlers on the Ural.
 ATTILA's fame has not come down to us through the partial and suspicious
 medium of chroniclers and poets of his own race, 
It is not from Hunnish
 authorities that we learn the extent of his might: It is from his
from the literature and the legends of the nations whom he
 afflicted with his arms, 
that we draw the unquestionable evidence of
 his greatness, 
Latin, 
 Gothic writers, 
we have the strongest proof of the stern reality of
 ATTILA's conquests in the extent to which he and his Huns have been the
 themes of the earliest German and Scandinavian lays, 
Wild as many of
 these legends are, 
they bear concurrent and certain testimony to the awe
 with which the memory of ATTILA was regarded by the bold warriors who
 composed and delighted in them, 
ATTILA's exploits, 
the wonders of
 his unearthly steed and magic sword, 
repeatedly occur —IN—THE—sagas
 of Norway and Iceland, 
 and the celebrated Niebelungen Lied, 
the most
 ancient of Germanic poetry, 
is full of them, 
There Etsel or ATTILA, 
 described as the wearer of twelve mighty crowns, 
as promising to
 his bride the lands of thirty kings, 
whom his irresistible sword has
 subdued, 
He is, 
the hero of the latter part of this remarkable
 poem, 
 and it is at his capital city, 
Etselenburgh, 
which evidently
 corresponds to the modern Buda, 
that much of its ACTION takes place.
we see
 clearly that he was not one of the vulgar herd of barbaric conquerors.
 Consummate MILITARY skill may be traced in his campaigns, 
 and he relied
 far less on the brute force of armies for the aggrandizement of his
than on the unbounded influence over the affections of friends
 and the fears of foes which his genius enabled him to acquire.
strength, 
grave and deliberate in counsel, 
he gave safety and security to all
 who were under his dominion, 
while he waged a warfare of extermination
 against all who opposed or sought to escape from it, 
He matched the
 national passions, 
the creeds, 
the superstitions of
 the varied nations over which he ruled, 
of those which he sought to
 reduce beneath his sway: and these feelings he had the skill to turn
 to his own account, 
His own warriors believed him to be the inspired
 favourite of their deities, 
followed him with fanatic zeal: his
 enemies looked on him as the pre-appointed minister of Heaven's wrath
 against themselves, 
 own made them tremble before him.
 In one of his —EARLY, campaigns he appeared before his troops with an
 ancient iron sword in his grasp, 
which he told them was the god of war
 whom their ancestors had worshipped, 
It is certain that the nomadic
 tribes of Northern Asia, 
whom HERODOTUS described under the name of
 Scythians, 
 That sword-God was supposed, 
in ATTILA's time, 
to have disappeared from
 earth, 
 but the Hunnish king now claimed to have received it by special
 revelation, 
It was said that a herdsman, 
who was tracking in the desert
 a wounded heifer by the drops of blood, 
found the mysterious sword
 standing fixed in the ground, 
as if it had been darted down from heaven.
 The herdsman bore it to ATTILA, 
who thenceforth was believed by the Huns
 to wield the Spirit of Death in battle, 
 and the seers prophesied that
 that sword was to destroy THE—WORLD, 
who was on
 an embassy to the Hunnish camp, 
recorded in his memoirs ATTILA's
 acquisition of this supernatural weapon, 
the immense influence over
 the minds of the barbaric tribes which its possession gave him, 
 title which he assumed, 
we shall see the skill with which he availed
 himself of the legends and creeds of other nations as well as of his
He designated himself "ATTILA, 
Descendant of the Great Nimrod.
 Nurtured in Engaddi, 
By the Grace of God, 
—KING—OF—THE—Huns, 
THE—GOTHS,
 the Danes, 
The Dread of THE—WORLD."
 Herbert states that ATTILA is represented on an old medallion with a
 Teraphim, 
or a head, 
on his breast, 
 and the same writer adds: "We know,
 from the 'Hamartigenea' of Prudentius, 
that Nimrod, 
with a snaky-haired
 head, 
was the object of adoration to the heretical followers of Marcion; and the same head was the palladium set up by Antiochus Epiphanes over
 the gates of Antioch, 
though it has been called the visage of Charon.
 The memory of Nimrod was certainly regarded with mystic veneration by
 many, 
 and by asserting himself to be the heir of that mighty hunter
 before the Lord, 
he vindicated to himself at least the whole BABYLONian
 kingdom.
 "The singular assertion in his style, 
that he was nurtured in Engaddi
 where he certainly, 
had never been, 
will be more easily understood on
 reference to the twelfth CHAPTER—of THE—BOOK of Revelation, 
concerning
 the woman clothed with the sun, 
who was to bring forth in the
 wilderness--'where she hath a place prepared of God'--a man-child, 
 was to contend with the dragon having seven heads and ten horns, 
This prophecy was AT—THAT—TIME
 understood universally by the sincere Christians to refer to the birth
 of CONSTANTINE, 
who was to overwhelm the paganism of THE—CITY on the
 seven hills, 
it is still so explained, 
 but it is evident that the
 heathens must have looked on it in a different light, 
have regarded
 it as a foretelling of the birth of that Great One who should master the
 temporal power of ROMe, 
The assertion, 
that he was nurtured
 in Engaddi, 
is a claim to be looked upon as that man-child who was to
 be brought forth in a place prepared of God in the wilderness, 
Engaddi
 means, 
a place of palms and vines, 
in the desert, 
 it was hard by Zoar,
 THE—CITY—OF—refuge, 
which was saved in the vale of Siddim, 
or Demons,
 when the rest were destroyed by fire and brimstone from the Lord in
 heaven, 
might, 
be especially called a place prepared of
 God in the wilderness."
 It is obvious enough why he styled himself "By the grace of God, 
King of
 the Huns and Goths, 
" and it seems far from difficult to see why he added
 the names of the Medes and the Danes, 
His armies had been engaged in
 warfare against the PERSIAn KINGDOM—of—THE—SASsanidae, 
 and it is
 certain 
that he meditated the attack
 and overthrow of the Medo-PERSIAn power, 
Probably some of the northern
 provinces of that kingdom had been compelled to pay him tribute, 
 this would account for his styling himself —KING—OF—THE—Medes, 
they being
 his remotest subjects to the south, 
From a similar cause he may have
 called himself —KING—OF—THE—Danes, 
as his power may well have extended
 northwards as far as the nearest of the Scandinavian nations, 
 this mention of Medes and Danes as his subjects would serve at once to
 indicate the vast extent of his dominion, 
[In the "Niebelungen-Lied,"
 the old poet who describes the reception of the heroine Chrimhild by
 ATTILA (Etsel) says that ATTILA's dominions were so vast, 
that among his
 subject-warriors there were Russian, 
Greek, 
Wallachian, 
Polish, 
 DANISH KNIGHTS]
 The extensive territory north of the Danube and Black sea, 
eastward
 of Caucasus, 
over which ATTILA ruled, 
in conjunction with his
 brother Bleda, 
afterwards alone, 
cannot be very accurately defined; but it must have comprised within it, 
besides the Huns, 
many nations of
 Slavic, 
Gothic, 
Teutonic, 
Finnish origin, 
South also of the Danube,
 THE—COUNTRY from the river Sau as far as Novi in Thrace was a Hunnish
 province, 
Such was THE—EMPIRE of the Huns in 0445, 
 a memorable year,
 in which ATTILA FOUNDED Buda on the Danube as his capital city, 
 ridded himself of his brother by a crime, 
which seems to have been
 prompted not only by selfish ambition, 
but also by a desire of turning
 to his purpose the legends and forebodings which then were universally
 spread —THROUGHOUT THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE, 
must have been well known to the
 watchful and ruthless Hun.
It had always been believed among THE—ROMANs that
the 12 vultures which were said to have appeared to Romulus when he FOUNDED THE—CITY, signified the time
The twelve vultures denoted twelve centuries, 
even when there were yet many of the twelve centuries to run, and , while THE—IMPERIAL—city was at the zenith of its power, 
But as the allotted time drew nearer and nearer to its conclusion, and , 
the terrible omen was more and more talked and thought of, 
 and in ATTILA's time, men watched for the momentary extinction of THE—ROMAN—STATE with the last beat of the last vulture's wing, 
there was one most terrible one, which told that Romulus did not put his brother to death in accident, or in hasty quarrel, but that
The example of Romulus is the main authority quoted]
 We may imagine, therefore, with what TERROR—IN—this, the twelve-hundredth year after the foundation of ROMe, 
the inhabitants of THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE must have heard the tidings that THE—ROYAL—brethren, ATTILA and Bleda, had FOUNDED a new capitol on the Danube, 
 designed to rule over THE—ANCIENT capitol on the Tiber, and that
 ATTILA, like Romulus, had consecrated the foundations of his new city by murdering his brother, 
 so that, 
for the new cycle of centuries then about to commence, 
 It is to be remembered that not only the pagans, but 
 also the Christians of that age, knew and believed in these legends and omens, however 
 they might differ as to the nature of the superhuman agency by which such mysteries had been made known to mankind, And 
 we may observe, with Herbert, a modern learned dignitary of our Church, 
"if to the twelve centuries denoted by the twelve vultures that appeared to Romulus, 
we add for the 6 birds that appeared to Remus 6 lustra, or periods of 5—YEARS each, 
by which THE—ROMANs were wont to number their time, 
04760000             —THE —YEAR it brings us precisely to, 
04760000             —THE —YEAR in which THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE was finally extinguished by ODOACER."
at the instigation of des THEODOSIUS the Younger—EMPEROR—of Constantinople, An attempt to assassinate ATTILA, made, or supposed to have been made, 
04450000             —IN, drew the Hunnish armies, upon THE—EASTern empire, and , 
04450000             —delayed FOR—A—TIME the destined blow against ROMe, 
 a more important cause of delay was the revolt of some of the Hunnish
 tribes to the north of the Black Sea against ATTILA, 
which broke out
 about this period, 
is cursorily mentioned by the Byzantine writers.
 ATTILA quelled this revolt, 
 and having thus consolidated his power, 
 having punished the presumption of THE—EASTERN—ROMAN—EMPEROR by fearful
 ravages of his fairest provinces, 
ATTILA, 
04500000             
prepared to set
 his vast forces in motion for the conquest of Western Europe, 
 sought unsuccessfully by diplomatic intrigues to detach the —KING—OF—THE—Visigoths from his alliance with ROMe, 
he resolved 1, 
to crush
 the power of THEODOric, 
then to advance with overwhelming power to
 trample out the last sparks of the doomed ROMAN—EMPIRE.
 A strong invitation from a ROMAn princess gave him a pretext for
threw an air of chivalric enterprise over his —INVASÃON.
 Honoria, 
sister of VALENTINIAN—III., 
THE—EMPEROR—OF—THE—WEST, 
had sent
 to ATTILA to offer him her hand, 
her supposed right to share in the
 imperial power, 
This had been discovered by ROMAns, 
Honoria had been
 forthwith closely imprisoned, 
ATTILA now pretended to take up arms in
 behalf of his self-promised bride, 
proclaimed that he was about to
 march to ROMe to redress Honoria's wrongs, 
Ambition and spite against
 her brother must have been the sole motives that led the lady to woo the
 royal Hun for ATTILA's face and person had all THE—NATIONAL ugliness of
 his race and the description given of him by a Byzantine ambassador must
 have been well known IN—THE—IMPERIAL—courts, 
Herbert has well versified
 the portrait drawn by Priscus of the great enemy of both Byzantium and
 ROMe:--
 "Terrific was his semblance, 
in no mould
 Of beautiful proportion cast, 
 his limbs
 Nothing exalted, 
but with sinews braced
 Of Chalybaean temper, 
agile, 
lithe,
 And swifter than the roe, 
 his ample chest
 Was overbrowed by a gigantic head,
 With eyes keen, 
deeply sunk, 
small, 
that gleam'd
 Strangely in wrath, 
as though some spirit unclean
 Within that corporal tenement installed
 Look'd from its windows, 
but with temper'd fire
 Beam'd mildly on the unresisting, 
Thin
 His beard and hoary, 
 his flat nostrils crown'd
 A cicatrised, 
swart visage,--but withal
 That questionable shape such glory wore
 That mortals quail'd beneath him."
 Two chiefs of THE—FRANKS, 
who were then settled on the lower Rhine, 
 at this period engaged in a feud with each other: and while one of them
 appealed to THE—ROMANs for aid, 
the other invoked the assistance and
 PROTECTION—OF—the Huns, 
ATTILA thus obtained an ally whose co-operation
 secured for him the —PASSAGE of the Rhine, 
 and it was this circumstance
 which caused him to take a northward route from Hungary for his attack
 upon Gaul, 
The muster of the Hunnish hosts was swollen by warriors of
 every tribe that they had subjugated, 
 nor is there any reason to suspect
 the old chroniclers of wilful exaggeration in estimating ATTILA's army
 at seven hundred thousand strong, 
Having crossed the Rhine, 
probably
 a little below Coblentz, 
he defeated the —KING—OF—THE—Burgundians, 
 endeavoured to bar his progress, 
He then divided his vast forces into
 two armies,--one of which marched north-west upon Tongres and ARRAS,
 and the other cities of that part of FRANCE, 
 while the main body, 
under
 ATTILA himself marched up the Moselle, 
destroyed Besancon, 
other
 towns in THE—COUNTRY of THE—BURGundians, 
One of the latest and best
 biographers of ATTILA well observes, 
"having thus conquered the
 eastern part of FRANCE, 
ATTILA prepared for an —INVASÃON—OF—THE—WEST
 Gothic territories beyond the LOIRE, 
He marched upon Orleans, 
where he
 intended to force the —PASSAGE of that river;  
 and only a little attention is requisite to enable us to perceive that he proceeded on a systematic
 plan: he had his right wing on the north, 
for THE—PROTECTION—OF—his Frank allies;  
 his left wing on the south, 
for the purpose of preventing THE—BURGundians from rallying, 
of menacing the passes of the Alps from ITALY;  
 and he led his centre towards THE—CHIEF object of the
 campaign--the conquest of Orleans, 
The whole plan is very like that of the allied powers in 1814, 
with this difference, 
that their left wing entered FRANCE
 through the defiles of the Jura, 
in the direction of LYONs, 
 MILITARY object of THE—CAMPAIGN was the capture of PARIS." 
[Biographical
 Dictionary commenced by THE—USeful Knowledge Society in 1844]
 It was not until  
04510000             that the Huns commenced —SIEGE—OF—Orleans;  
 and             —DURING—the ir campaign in Eastern Gaul, 
THE—ROMAN—general
 Aetius had strenuously exerted himself in collecting and organizing such
 an army as might, 
when united to the soldiery of the Visigoths, 
be fit to face the Huns in the field, 
He enlisted every SUBJECT—OF—THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE whom patriotism, 
courage, 
or compulsion could collect beneath the standards;  
 and round these troops, 
which assumed the once proud title of
 the legions of ROMe, 
he arrayed the large forces of barbaric auxiliaries
 whom pay, 
persuasion, 
or the general hate and dread of the Huns, 
 On the advance of THE—ALLIES upon Orleans, 
ATTILA instantly broke up —SIEGE—OF—that city, 
retreated towards the Marne, 
He did not choose to risk a decisive battle with only THE—CENTRAL corps of his army against the combined power of his enemies;  
 and he therefore fell back upon his base of operations;  
 calling in his wings from ARRAS and Besancon, 
concentrating the whole of the Hunnish forces on the vast plains of CHALONS-sur-Marne, 
 It was
             —DURING—the retreat from Orleans that a CHRISTIAN—Is reported to have approached the Hunnish king, 
"Thou art the Scourge
 of God for the chastisement of Christians." ATTILA instantly assumed this new title of terror, 
which thenceforth became the appellation by
 which he was most widely and most fearfully known.
 The confederate armies of ROMAns and Visigoths at last met their great adversary, 
face to face, 
on the ample battle-ground of the CHALONS plains, 
 King THEODOric on the left;  
 and Sangipan, 
KING—OF—the Alans, 
whose fidelity was suspected,
 was placed purposely in the centre and in the very front of the battle, 
the Gepidae, 
the other subject
 allies of the Huns, 
in which ATTILA had the
ATTILA saw THE—IMPORTANCE of the position taken by Aetius on THE—HIGH ground, 
commenced the battle
 by a furious attack on this part of THE—ROMAN—line, 
in which he seems to
 have detached some of his best troops from his centre to aid his left.
 THE—ROMANs having the advantage of the ground, 
repulsed the Huns, 
their left,
 under King THEODOric, 
assailed the Ostrogoths, 
The gallant king was himself struck down by a javelin, 
as he rode onward at the HEAD—OF—his men, 
his own cavalry charging
 over him trampled him to death in the confusion, 
But the Visigoths, 
infuriated, 
not dispirited, 
by their monarch's fall, 
routed the enemies
 opposed to them, 
 In this peril ATTILA made his centre fall back upon his camp;  
 and when the shelter of its entrenchments and waggons had once been gained,
the charges of the vengeful Gothic cavalry, 
Aetius had not pressed the advantage which he gained on his side of the field, 
but his right had been routed, 
ATTILA stationed his best archers in front of the cars and waggons, 
 and he caused to be raised in the centre of his encampment a huge pyramid of the wooden saddles of his
 cavalry: round it he heaped the spoils and the wealth that he had won;  
so to extort by
 famine that submission which it was too plainly perilous to enforce with the sword, 
 and feared that ROMe might find a second Alaric in Prince Thorismund, 
He persuaded the young king to return at once to his capital: and thus relieved himself
as well as of a formidable though beaten foe.
empire were soon renewed;  
 but never with such peril to the civilized world as had menaced it before his defeat at CHALONS, 
the vast empire which his genius had FOUNDED was soon dissevered by the
The name of the Huns ceased for some centuries to inspire TERROR—IN—Western Europe, 
 ascendency passed away with the life of the great king by whom it had been so fearfully augmented, 
[If I seem to have given fewer of the details of the battle itself than its importance would warrant, 
I have not, 
The notes to Mister Herbert's poem of "ATTILA" bring together nearly all the authorities on the subject]
04510000             ,
THE —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
732.
Frisians conquer BRITAIN except the
 northern parts, 
The German
 conquerors found 8 independent kingdoms.
THE—EMPEROR—OF—Constantinople,
 conquer ITALY and NORTH—AFRICA;  
05680000—05700000    The Lombards conquer great part of ITALY.
05700000—06270000    THE—WARs between THE—EMPERORs of Constantinople and THE—KINGS—OF—PERSIA are actively continued.
06220000             The Mahometan era of the Hegira, 
is received as prince of MEDINA.
They conquer SYRIA, 
Africa.
 "At the death of Mohammad, 
in 632, 
his temporal and religious sovereignty embraced and was limited by THE—ARABIA—PENINSULA, 
 and PERSIAn empires, 
engaged in tedious and indecisive hostility upon
 the rivers of Mesopotamia and the Armenian mountains, 
were viewed by the ambitious fanatics of his creed as their quarry, 
 In the very 1, 
year of Mohammad's immediate successor, 
Abubeker, 
 The crumbling fabric of Eastern despotism is never secured against rapid and total SUBVERSION;  
carried THE—ARABian arms from the Tigris to the Oxus, 
 overthrew, 
with THE—SASsanian dynasty, 
THE—ANCIENT and famous RELIGION
 they had professed, 
Seven years of active and unceasing warfare sufficed
 to subjugate the rich province of SYRIA, 
though defended by numerous armies and fortified cities;  
 and the Khalif Omar had scarcely returned thanks for the accomplishment of this conquest, 
when Amrou, 
 lieutenant, 
announced to him the entire reduction of Egypt, 
After some
THE—SARACENS won their way along THE—COAST—OF—Africa, 
as far
 as the Pillars of Hercules, 
a third province was irretrievably torn
 from the Greek empire, 
These western conquests introduced them to fresh
Encouraged by the
 disunion of the Visigoths, 
invited by treachery, 
MUSA, 
the general
 of a master who sat beyond the opposite extremity of the Mediterranean
 Sea, 
within about two years the name of
 Mohammad was invoked under THE—PYRENEES."--[HALLAM]
,
07320000             from the civil and religious yoke of the Koran."--GIBBON.
07320000             The broad tract of champaign country which intervenes between the cities of Poictiers and TOURS 
07320000             is principally composed of a succession of rich pasture lands, 
07320000             which are traversed and fertilized by the Cher, 
07320000             the Creuse, 
07320000             the VIENNE, 
07320000             the Claine, 
07320000             the Indre, 
07320000             other tributaries of the river LOIRE, 
07320000             Here and there, 
the ground swells into picturesque eminences;  and 
07320000             occasionally a belt of forest land, 
a brown heath, 
breaks the monotony of the wide-spread meadows; but 
07320000             the general character of the land is that of a grassy plain, 
07320000             it seems naturally adapted for the evolutions of numerous armies, 
07320000             especially of those vast bodies of cavalry which, 
07320000             principally decided the fate of nations
07320000    —DURING the centuries that followed the downFALL—OF—ROMe, 
07320000    —DURING the centuries that PRECEDED the consolidation of the modern European powers.
 it is principally interesting to the historian, 
by 
07320000             having been the scene of the great victory won by CHARLES Martel over THE—SARACENS, 
 which gave a decisive check to the career of Arab conquest in Western
 Europe, 
rescued CHRISTENdom from ISLAM, 
preserved the relics of ancient
 and the germs of modern civilization, 
re-established the old
 superiority of the INDO—EUROPEAN over the Semitic family of mankind.
 Sismondi and Michelet have underrated the enduring interest of this
 great Appeal of Battle between the champions of the Crescent and the
 Cross, 
if French writers have slighted the exploits of their
 national hero, 
the Saracenic trophies of CHARLES Martel have had full
 justice done to them by English and German historians, 
Gibbon devotes
 several pages of his great work to the narrative of —BATTLE—OF—TOURS,
 and to the consideration of the consequences which probably would
 have resulted, 
if ABDERRAHMAN's enterprise had not been crushed by the
 Frankish chief, 
[Vol, 
vii—PAGE—11, 
ET SEQ, 
Gibbon's remark, 
that if the
 Saracen conquest had not then been checked, 
"Perhaps the interpretation
 of the Koran would now be taught —IN—THE—schools of Oxford, 
 pulpits might demonstrate to a circumcised people the sanctity and truth
 of THE—REVELATION of Mahomat," has almost an air of regret] 
Schlegel
 speaks of this "mighty victory" in terms of fervent gratitude, 
 tells how "the arms of CHARLES Martel saved and delivered the CHRISTIAN
 nations of THE—WEST from the deadly grasp of all-destroying ISLAM, 
"
and Ranke points out, 
as "one of the
 most important epochs —IN—THE—HISTORY—OF—THE—WORLD, 
the commencement of
 the eighth century, 
 when, 
on the one side, 
Mahommedanism threatened to
 overspread ITALY and Gaul, 
on the other, 
THE—ANCIENT idolatry of
 SACHSEN and FRIESLAND once more forced its way ACROSS—THE—RHINE, 
In this
 peril of CHRISTIAN—Institutions, 
a youthful prince of Germanic race,
 KARL—MARTELL, 
arose as their champion, 
 maintained them with all the
 energy which the necessity for self-defence calls forth, 
finally
 extended them into new regions." 
[HISTORY—OF—THE—REFORMATION in GERMANY,
 VOLUME—I—PAGE—5]
 ARNOLD ranks THE—VICTORY—OF—CHARLES Martel even higher than THE—VICTORY
 of ARMINIUS, 
"among those signal deliverances which have affected
 —FOR—CENTURIES the happiness of mankind." 
[HISTORY—OF—the later ROMAn
 Commonwealth, 
VOLUME—ii—PAGE—317] 
In fact, 
the more we test its importance,
 THE—HIGHer we shall be led to estimate it, 
though the authentic
 details which we possess of its circumstances and its heroes are but
 meagre, 
we can trace enough of its general character to make us watch
 with deep interest this encounter between the rival conquerors of the
 decaying ROMAN—EMPIRE, 
07000101—07991231    in the, That old classic world, the HISTORY—OF—which occupies so large a portion of our —EARLY, studies, lay utterly exanimate and overthrown, 
07000101—07991231    in the, On the north the German, was rending away its provinces, 
07000101—07991231    in the, on the south THE—ARAB, was rending away its provinces, 
At last the spoilers encountered one another, each striving for the full mastery of the prey, 
Their KONFLIKT brought back upon the memory of Gibbon the old Homeric simile, 
where the strife of Hector and Patroclus over the dead body of Cebriones is compared to the combat of two lions, 
that in their hate and hunger fight together on the mountain-tops over the carcass of a slaughtered stag: and 
the reluctant yielding of the Saracen power to the superior might of the Northern warriors, 
might not inaptly recall those other lines of the same book of the Iliad, 
where the downFALL—OF—Patroclus beneath Hector is likened to the forced yielding of the panting and exhausted wild boar, 
that had long and furiously fought with a superior beast of prey for THE—POSSESSION—OF—the fountain among the rocks, 
at which each burned to drink.
 Although 3 centuries had passed away since the Germanic conquerors of ROMe had crossed the Rhine, 
never to repass that frontier stream,
 no settled —SYSTEM of institutions or government, 
no amalgamation of the various races into one people, 
no uniformity of language or habits, 
had been established in THE—COUNTRY, 
AT—THE—TIME when CHARLES Martel was called on to repel the menacing tide of Saracenic —INVASÃON from the south, 
Gaul was NOT—YET FRANCE, 
In that, 
as in other provinces of the
 ROMAN—EMPIRE of THE—WEST, 
the dominion of THE—CAESARS had been shattered
 as —EARLY, as the fifth century, 
barbaric kingdoms and principalities
 had promptly arisen on the ruins of THE—ROMAN—power, 
But few of these
 had any permanency, 
 and none of them consolidated the rest, 
or any
 considerable number of the rest, 
into one coherent and organized civil
 and political society, 
The great bulk of the population still consisted
 of the conquered provincials, 
that is to say, 
of ROMAnized Celts, 
 Gallic race which had long been under the dominion of THE—CAESARS,
 and had acquired, 
together with no slight infusion of ROMAn blood, 
the literature, 
THE—LAWs, 
the civilization of Latium.
 Among these, 
dominant over them, 
roved or dwelt THE—GERMAN—victors:
 some retaining nearly all the rude independence of their primitive
 national character, 
 others, 
softened and disciplined by the aspect and
 contact of the manners and institutions of civilized life, 
For it is to
 be borne in mind, 
that THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE IN—THE—WEST was not crushed by
 any sudden avalanche of barbaric —INVASÃON, 
THE—GERMAN—conquerors came
 ACROSS—THE—RHINE, 
not in enormous hosts, 
but in bands of a few thousand
 warriors at a time, 
The conquest of a province was the result of an
 infinite series of partial local —INVASÃONs, 
carried on by little armies
 of this description, 
The victorioUS—WARriors either retired with their
 booty, 
or fixed themselves in the invaded district, 
taking care to keep
 sufficiently concentrated for MILITARY purposes, 
ever ready for
 some fresh foray, 
either against a rival Teutonic band, 
or some hitherto
 unassailed CITY—OF—the provincials, 
Gradually, 
the conquerors
 acquired a desire for permanent landed possessions, 
They lost somewhat
 of the restless thirst for novelty and adventure which had 1, 
made
 them throng beneath the banner of the boldest captains of their tribe,
 and leave their native forests for a roving MILITARY Life on the left
 bank of the Rhine, 
They were converted to the CHRISTIAN faith, 
 and gave
 up with their old creed much of the coarse ferocity, 
which must have
 been fostered —IN—THE—spirits of THE—ANCIENT warriors of the North by
 a mythology which promised, 
as the reward of the brave on earth, 
an
 eternal cycle of fighting and drunkenness in heaven.
although their conversion and other civilizing influences operated
 powerfully upon THE—GERMANS in Gaul, 
 and although THE—FRANKS (who were
 originally a confederation of THE—TEUTONIC tribes that dwelt between the
 Rhine, 
the Maine, 
the Weser) established a decided superiority over
 the other conquerors of the province, 
as well as over the conquered
 provincials, 
THE—COUNTRY long remained a chaos of uncombined and
 shifting elements, 
The —EARLY, princes of the Merovingian dynasty were
 generally occupied in wars against other princes of their house,
 occasioned by the frequent subdivisions of the Frank monarchy: and
 the ablest and best of them had found all their energies tasked to the
 utmost to defend the barrier of the Rhine against the Pagan Germans, 
 strove to pass that river and gather their share of the spoils of the
 empire.
 The conquests which THE—SARACENS effected over the southern and eastern
 provinces of ROMe were far more rapid than those achieved by THE—GERMANS
 in the north, 
 and the new ORGANIZATIONs of society which the Moslems
 introduced were summarily and uniformly enforced, 
Exactly 100—YEARS
 passed between the death of Mohammed and the date of the —BATTLE—OF
 TOURS, 
             —DURING that century the followers of the Prophet had torn away
 half THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE, 
 and besides their conquests over PERSIA, 
 Saracens had overrun SYRIA, 
in an unchequered
 and apparently irresistible career of victory, 
Nor, 
at the commencement
 of the eighth Jh. of our era, 
was the Mohammedan world divided
 against itself, 
as it subsequently became, 
All these vast regions obeyed
 THE—CALIph, 
 —THROUGHOUT them all, 
from THE—PYRENEES to the Oxus, 
the name
 of Mohammed was invoked in prayer, 
the Koran revered as THE—BOOK of
 THE—LAW.
 It was under one of their ablest and most renowned commanders, 
 a veteran army, 
with every apparent advantage of time, 
place, 
 circumstance, 
that THE—ARABs made their great effort at the conquest of
 Europe north of THE—PYRENEES, 
The victorious Moslem soldiery in SPAIN,
 "A countless multitude; SYRIAn, 
Moor, 
Saracen, 
Greek renegade,
 PERSIAn, 
Copt, 
Tartar, 
in one bond
 Of erring faith conjoined--strong in the youth
 And heat of zeal--a dreadful brotherhood,"
 were eager for the plunder of more CHRISTIAN cities and shrines, 
 full of fanatic confidence in the invincibility of their arms.
 "Nor were THE—CHIEFs
 Of victory less assured, 
by long success
 Elate, 
proud of that o'erwhelming strength
 Which surely, 
they believed, 
as it had rolled
 Thus far uncheck'd, 
would roll victorious on,
 Till, 
like the Orient, 
the subjected West
 Should bow in reverence at Mahommed's name; And pilrims from remotest Arctic shores
 Tread with religious feet the burning sands
 Of Araby and Mecca's stony soil."
 SOUTHEY'S RODERICK.
 It is not only by the modern CHRISTIAN poet, 
but by the old Arabian
 chroniclers also, 
that these feelings of ambition and arrogance are
 attributed to the Moslems, 
who had overthrown the Visigoth power in
 SPAIN, 
And their eager expectations of new wars were excited to the
 utmost on the re-appointment by THE—CALIF—OF—ABDERRAHMAN—IBN—ABDILLAH—ALGHAFEKI to THE—GOVERNMENT—OF—that country, 
07290000             
which restored
 them a general who had signalized his skill and prowess
             —DURING—the 
 conquests of Africa and SPAIN, 
whose ready valour and generosity had
 made him the idol of the troops, 
who had ALREADY been engaged in several
 expeditions into Gaul, 
so as to be well acquainted with THE—NATIONAL
 character and tactics of THE—FRANKS, 
 and who was known to thirst, 
 a good Moslem, 
for revenge for the slaughter of some detachments of the
 true believers, 
which had been cut off on the north of THE—PYRENEES.
 In addition to his cardinal MILITARY virtues, 
ABDERRAHMAN—Is described
 by THE—ARAB writers as a model of integrity and justice, 
The 1, two years of his second administration in SPAIN were occupied in severe
 reforms of the abuses which under his predecessors had crept into the
 —SYSTEM of government, 
in extensive preparations for his intended
 conquest of Gaul, 
Besides the troops which he collected from his
he obtained from Africa a large body of chosen Barber cavalry,
 officered by Arabs of proved skill and valour: and IN —THE—SUMMER of 732
 he crossed THE—PYRENEES at the HEAD—OF—an army which some Arab writers
 rate at eighty thousand strong, 
while some of the CHRISTIAN chroniclers
 swell its numbers to many hundreds of thousands more, 
Probably THE—ARAB
 account diminishes, 
but of the two keeps nearer to THE—TRUTH, 
It was
 from this formidable host, 
after EUDES, 
THE—COUNT—OF—Acquitaine, 
 vainly striven to check it, 
after many strong cities had fallen before
half the land been overrun, 
that Gaul and CHRISTENdom were
 at last rescued by the strong arm of Prince CHARLES, 
who acquired
 a surname, 
[Martel--'The Hammer.' See the Scandinavian Sagas for an
 acCOUNT—OF—the favourite weapon of Thor] 
like that of THE—WAR-god of
 his forefathers' creed, 
from the might with which he broke and shattered
 his enemies in the battle.
 The Merovingian kings had sunk into absolute insignificance, 
 become mere puppets of royalty before the eighth century, 
CHARLES Martel
 like his father, 
Pepin Heristal, 
was DUKE—OF—the Austrasian Franks, 
 bravest and most thoroughly Germanic part of the nation: and exercised,
 in the name of the titular king, 
what little paramount authority the
 turbulent minor rulers of districts and towns could be persuaded or
 compelled to acknowledge, 
Engaged with his national competitors in
 perpetual KONFLIKTs for power, 
engaged also in more serious struggles
 for safety against the fierce tribes of the unconverted Frisians,
 Bavarians, 
Thuringians, 
who at that epoch assailed with
 peculiar ferocity the christianized Germans on the left bank of the
CHARLES Martel added experienced skill to his natural courage,
 and he had also formed a militia of veterans among THE—FRANKS, 
Hallam
 has thrown out a doubt whether, 
in our admiration of his victory at
we do not judge a little too much by THE—EVENT, 
whether there
 was not rashness in his risking the fate of FRANCE on the result of a
 general battle with the invaders, 
when we remember that CHARLES had
 no standing army, 
the independent spirit of the Frank warriors who
 followed his standard, 
it seems most probable that it was not in his
 power to adopt the cautious policy of watching the invaders, 
wearing
 out their strength by delay, 
So dreadful and so wide-spread were the
 ravages of the Saracenic light cavalry —THROUGHOUT Gaul that it must have
 been impossible to restrain for any length of time the indignant ardour
 of THE—FRANKS, 
even if CHARLES could have persuaded his men to
 look tamely on while THE—ARABs stormed more towns and desolated more
he could not have kept an army together when THE—USual period
 of a MILITARY expedition had expired, 
If, 
THE—ARAB account of
 the disORGANIZATION of the Moslem forces be correct, 
the battle was
 as well-timed on the part of CHARLES as it was beyond all question,
 well-fought.
 The monkish chroniclers, 
from whom we are obliged to glean a narrative
 of this memorable campaign, 
bear full evidence to the terror which the
 Saracen —INVASÃON inspired, 
to the agony of that, 
 great struggle, 
 Saracens, 
say they, 
their king, 
who was called Abdirames, 
came out
 of SPAIN, 
with all their wives, 
their children, 
their substance,
 in such great multitudes that no man could reckon or estimate them, 
 brought with them all their armour, 
whatever they had, 
as if they
 were thence forth always to dwell in FRANCE, 
["Lors issirent d'Espaigne
 li Sarrazins, 
et un leur ROI qui avoit nom Abdirames, 
et ont leur fames
 et leur enfans at touts leur substance an si grand plente que nus ne
 le prevoit nombrer ne estimer: tout leur harnois et quanques il avoient
 amenement avec ents, 
aussi comme si ils deussent toujours mes habiter en
 FRANCE."]
 "Then ABDERRAHMAN, 
seeing the land filled with the multitude of his
pierces through the mountains, 
tramples over rough and level
 ground plunders far into THE—COUNTRY of THE—FRANKS, 
smites all with
 the sword, 
insomuch that when Eudo came to battle with him at the river
 Garonne, 
fled before him, 
God alone knows the number of the slain.
 Then ABDERRAHMAN pursued after Count Eudo, 
while he strives to
 spoil and burn the holy shrine at TOURS, 
he encounters THE—CHIEF of the
 Austrasian Franks, 
CHARLES, 
a man of war from his youth up, 
to whom Eudo
 had sent warning, 
There for nearly seven days they strive intensely,
 and at last they set themselves in battle array, 
 and the nations of
 the north standing firm as a wall, 
impenetrable as a zone of ice,
 utterly slay THE—ARABs with the edge of the sword." 
["Tunc Abdirrahman,
 multitudine sui exercitus repletam prospiciane terram," &c.--SCRIPT.
 GEST, 
FRANC—PAGE—785]
 THE—EUropean writers all concur in speaKING—OF—the FALL—OF—ABDERRAHMAN
 as one of the principal causes of THE—DEFEAT—OF—THE—ARABs, 
 who,
 ACCORDING—TO—one writer, 
after finding that their leader was slain,
 dispersed in the night, 
to the agreeable surprise of the Christians, 
 expected the next morning to see them issue from their tents, 
renew
 the combat, 
One monkish chronicler puts the loss of THE—ARABs at 375,000
 men, 
while he says that only 1,007 Christians fell--a disparity of
 loss which he feels bound to account for by a special interposition of
 Providence, 
I have translated above some of the most spirited passages
 of these writers, 
 but it is impossible to collect from them anything
 like a full or authentic description of the great battle itself, 
or of
 THE—OPERATIONs which preceded or followed it.
 Though, 
we may have cause to regret the meagreness and doubtful
 character of these narratives, 
we have the great advantage of being
 able to compare the accounts given of ABDERRAHMAN's expedition by the
 national writers of each side, 
This is a benefit which the inquirer into antiquity so seldom can obtain, 
that the fact of possessing it, 
in the instance of —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
makes us think the historical testimony respecting that great event more certain and satisfactory than is the case in many other instances, 
where we possess abundant details respecting MILITARY exploits, but 
where those details come to us from the annalist of one nation only, and 
where we have, consequently, no safeguard against the exaggerations, the distortions, the fictions
 which national vanity has so often put forth in the garb and under THE—TITLE—OF—history, 
THE—ARABian writers who recorded the conquests and wars of their countrymen in SPAIN, 
have narrated also the expedition into Gaul of their great Emir, 
their great Emir his defeat and death near TOURS in battle with the host of THE—FRANKS under King Caldus, 
King Caldus, the name into which they metamorphose CHARLES, 
18200000             
[THE—ARABian chronicles were compiled and translated into Spanish by Don Jose Antonio Conde, 
18200000             in his "Historia—de—la—Dominacion de los Arabos an Espana," 
18200000             published at MADRID in .
 Don Jose Antonio 's plan, which I have endeavoured to follow, 
was to present both the style and spirit of his oriental authorities, 
so that we find in his pages a genuine Saracenic narrative of THE—WARs in Western Europe
 between the Mahommedans and the Christians]
 They tell us how there was WAR—BETWEEN—the COUNT—OF—the Frankish frontier and the Moslems, 
how the count gathered together all his people, 
fought FOR—A—TIME with doubtful success, 
"But," say THE—ARABian chroniclers, "ABDERRAHMAN drove them back, and 
THE—MEN—OF—ABDERRAHMAN were puffed up in spirit by their repeated successes, 
 they were full of trust in the valour and the practice in WAR—OF—their Emir, 
So the Moslems smote their enemies, 
passed the river Garonne, and 
laid waste THE—COUNTRY, 
took captives without number, And 
that army went through all places like a desolating storm, 
Prosperity made those warriors insatiable, 
At the —PASSAGE of the river, ABDERRAHMAN overthrew the count, 
the count retired into his stronghold, but 
the Moslems fought against it, 
entered it by force, 
slew the count; 
for everything gave way to their scimetars, 
which were the robbers of lives, 
All the nations of THE—FRANKS trembled at that terrible army, 
 they betook them to their king Caldus, 
told him of the havoc made by the Moslem horsemen, 
how they rode at their will through all the LAND—OF—Narbonne 
how they rode at their will through all the LAND—OF—TOULOUSE, 
how they rode at their will through all the LAND—OF—BORDEAUX, 
they told THE—KING—OF—the death of their count, 
Then the king bade them be of good cheer, 
 offered to aid them, And 
 in the 114th year 
[Of the Hegira] 
he mounted his home, 
he took with him a host that could not be numbered, 
 went against the Moslems, And 
 he came upon them at the great CITY—OF—TOURS, 
ABDERRAHMAN and other prudent cavaliers saw the disORDER—OF—THE—Moslem troops, 
who were loaded with spoil, but 
they did not venture to displease the soldiers by ordering them to abandon everything except their arms and war-horses, 
And ABDERRAHMAN trusted in the valour of his soldiers, 
in the good fortune which had ever attended him, But
 (THE—ARAB writer remarks) such defect of discipline always is fatal to armies, 
So ABDERRAHMAN and his host attacked TOURS to gain still more spoil, 
they fought against it so fiercely that they stormed THE—CITY almost before the eyes of THE—ARMY that came to save it, and 
the fury and 
the cruelty of the Moslems towards THE—INHABITANTS—OF—THE—CITY were like the fury and cruelty of raging tigers, 
It was manifest," adds THE—ARAB, 
"that God's chastisement was sure to follow such excesses, 
 fortune THEREUPON turned her back upon the Moslems."
 Near the river Owar, 
[Probably the LOIRE] 
the two great hosts of the two languages and the two creeds were set in array against each other.
 The hearts of ABDERRAHMAN, his captains, and his men were filled with wrath and pride, and , 
they were the 1, to begin the fight, 
The Moslem horseman dashed fierce and frequent forward against the battalions of THE—FRANKS, 
who resisted manfully, and , 
many fell dead on either side,
 until the going down of the sun, 
Night parted the two armies: but 
in the grey of the morning the Moslems returned to the battle, 
Their cavaliers had soon hewn their way into the centre of the CHRISTIAN host, But 
many of the Moslems were fearful for the safety of the spoil which they had stored in their tents, 
a false cry arose in their ranks that some of the enemy were plundering the camp, 
 WHEREUPON several squadrons of the Moslem horseman rode off to protect their tents, But 
 it seemed as if they fled, and all the host was troubled, 
And while ABDERRAHMAN strove to check their tumult, and , 
to lead them back to battle, 
THE—WARriors of THE—FRANKS came around him, and , 
he was pierced through with many spears,
 so that he died, 
Then all the host fled before the enemy, and , 
many died in the flight, 
This deadly DEFEAT—OF—the Moslems, and , 
the loss of the great leader and good cavalier ABDERRAHMAN, 
took place in the 115 Year.
 It would be difficult to expect from an adversary a more explicit confession of having been thoroughly vanquished, 
than THE—ARABs here accord to THE—EUropeans, 
The points on which their narrative differs from those of the Christians,
--as to how many days the KONFLIKT lasted, 
whether the assailed city was actually rescued or not, and the like,
--are of little moment compared with the admitted great fact that there was a decisive trial of strength between Frank and Saracen, 
in which THE—FORMER—conquered, 
The enduring importance of the —BATTLE—OF—TOURS in the eyes of the Moslems, 
is attested not only by the expressions of "the deadly battle," and "the disgraceful overthrow,"
 which their writers constantly employ when referring to it, but also
 by the fact that no further serious attempts at conquest beyond THE—PYRENEES were made by THE—SARACENS, 
CHARLES Martel, 
his son and
 grandson, 
were left at leisure to consolidate and extend their power.
 The new CHRISTIAN ROMAN—EMPIRE of THE—WEST, 
which THE—GENIUS—OF—Charlemagne FOUNDED, and, 
throughout which his iron will imposed peace on the old anarchy of creeds and races, 
did not indeed retain its integrity  after its great ruler's death, 
Fresh troubles came over Europe, but
 CHRISTENdom, though disunited, was safe, 
The progress of civilization, and 
the development of THE—NATIONALities and governments of modern Europe, 
from that time forth, 
went forward in not uninterrupted, but,
 ultimately, certain career.
07320000             ,SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, and THE —BATTLE—OF—HASTINGS , 1066.
07680000             -814, 
Reign of Charlemagne, 
This monarch has justly been termed the principal regenerator of Western Europe, 
after the destruction of THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE, 
The —EARLY, death of his brother, Carloman, 
left him sole master of the dominions of THE—FRANKS, which, 
by a succession of victorioUS—WARs, 
he enlarged into the new Empire of THE—WEST, 
He conquered the Lombards, 
re-established the PAPA at ROMe, 
who, in return, 
acknowledged CHARLES as suzerain of ITALY, and 
0
08000000             LEO—III—PAPA in the name of THE—ROMAN—PEOPLE, 
08000000             LEO—III—PAPA solemnly crowned Charlemagne at ROMe, 
08000000             LEO—III—PAPA as EMPEROR—OF—THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE of THE—WEST, 
In SPAIN, Charlemagne ruled THE—COUNTRY between THE—PYRENEES and the EBRO, but
Charlemagne his most important conquests were effected on THE—EASTern side of his original kingdom, 
Charlemagne his most important conquests were effected over the Sclavonians of Bohemia, 
Charlemagne his most important conquests were effected over the Avars of Pannonia, and , 
Charlemagne his most important conquests were effected overthe previously uncivilized German tribes who hadremained in their fatherland, 
The old Saxons were Charlemagne his most obstinate antagonists, and , 
Charlemagne his wars with them lasted for 30—YEARS, 
Under Charlemagne the greater part of GERMANY was compulsorily civilized, and, 
Under Charlemagne the greater part of GERMANY was compulsorily converted from Paganism to Christianity, 
Charlemagne His empire extended eastward as far as the ELBE, 
Charlemagne His empire extended eastward as far as the Saal, 
Charlemagne His empire extended eastward as far as the Bohemian mountains, and , 
a line drawn from thence crossing the Danube above Vienna and prolonged to the Gulf of Istria.
[Hallam's Middle Ages]
 —THROUGHOUT this vast assemblage of provinces Charlemagne established 1 organized , firm government, But
 it is not as a mere conqueror that Charlemagne demands admiration, 
"In a life restlessly active, Charlemagne
we see Charlemagne reforming the coinage, and , 
Charlemagneestablishing the legal divisions of money, 
gathering about Charlemagne the learned of every country, 
Charlemagne founding schools and collecting libraries, 
Charlemagne interfering, with the air of a king, in religious controversies, 
Charlemagne attempting, for the sake of commerce, the magnificent enterprise of uniting the Rhine and the Danube, and , 
Charlemagne meditating to mould the discordant code of ROMAn and barbarian laws into an uniform system."
[Hallam, UT SUPRA]814-888, 
Repeated partitions of THE—EMPIRE and 
CIVIL—WARs between Charlemagne's descendants, 
Ultimately, 
09820000             THE—KINGDOM—OF— FRANCE is finally SEPARATED—FROM GERMANY and ITALY, 
In 
09820000             Otho the Great, of GERMANY, revives THE—IMPERIAL—dignity.
08270000             EGBERT—KING—OF—WESSEX, acquires the supremacy over THE—ANGLO—SAXON—KINGDOMs.
 832, 
The 1. Danish squadron attacks part of THE—ENGLISH coast.
 A FEW YEARS EARLIER, The Danes, or Northmen, had begun their ravages in FRANCE 
For 200 FEW SCANDINAVIA[SCANDINAVIEN] 
sends out fleet after fleet of sea-rovers, 
 fleet after fleet of sea-rovers, who desolate all THE—WESTern kingdoms of Europe, 
in many cases effect permanent conquests.
08710000—09000000    Reign of Alfred in ENGLAND, 
After a long and varied struggle,
09110000             Alfred in ENGLAND rescues ENGLAND from the Danish invaders.
THE—FRENCH—KING cedes Neustria to Hrolf the Northman, 
Hrolf (or Duke ROLLO, as he thenceforth was termed) and his army of Scandinavian warriors, 
become the ruling class of the population of the province, which is called after them NORMANDY.
10160000             4 knights from NORMANDY, 
10160000             who had been on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, 
10160000             while returning through ITALY, 
10160000             head THE—PEOPLE—OF—SALERNO in repelling an attack of a—BAND—of Saracen corsairs, 
10170000—10160000    —IN THE NEXT YEAR many adventurers from NORMANDY settle in ITALY, 
10400000             where they conquer Apulia (), and , 
afterwards (
10600000             Sicily.
10170000             Canute, KING—OF—Denmark, becomes KING—OF—ENGLAND, 
10410000             —in, On the death of the last of his sons, 
10410000             the Saxon line is restored, and , 
10410000             Edward the Confessor (who had been bred IN—THE—COURT—OF—THE—DUKE—OF—NORMANDY),
10410000             is called by THE—ENGLISH to the throne of this ISLAND, 
10410000             as the representative of THE—HOUSE of Cerdic.
10350000             † Duke Robert of NORMANDY dies on his return from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and , 
10350000             † Duke Robert of NORMANDY his son William (afterwards the conqueror of ENGLAND) succeeds to THE—DUKEdom of NORMANDY.
 CHAPTER—VIII, -- —BATTLE—OF—HASTINGS, 
10660000             "Eis vos la Bataille assemblee, Dunc encore est grant renomee." ROMAN DE ROU, 1, 3183.
 Arletta's pretty feet twinkling in the brook gained her a duke's love, and 
Arletta's pretty feet twinkling in the brook gave us WILLIAM—THE—CONQUEROR, 
Had Arletta not thus fascinated Duke Robert, the Liberal, of NORMANDY, 
Harold would not have fallen at Hastings, 
no Anglo-Norman dynasty could have arisen, no BRITISH—EMPIRE.
 The reflection is Sir FRANCIS Palgrave's: 
[HISTORY—OF—NORMANDY and ENGLAND, VOLUME—I—PAGE—528] 
 it is emphatically true, 
If any one should write a HISTORY—OF—"Decisive loves that, have materially influenced the drama of THE—WORLD in all its subsequent scenes," 
 Arletta, the daughter of the tanner of Falaise would deserve a conspicuous place in his pages, But
 it is Arletta her son, the victor of Hastings, who is now the object of our attention, and
 no one, who appreciates the influence of ENGLAND and her empire upon the destinies of THE—WORLD, 
will ever rank that victory as one of secondary importance.
 It is true that
 IN  THE LAST CENTURY some writers of eminence on our history and laws mentioned the Norman Conquest in terms, 
from which it might be supposed that 
THE—BATTLE—OF—Hastings led to little more than the substitution of one royal family for another on the throne of this country, and , 
to the garbling and changing of some of our laws through the "cunning of the Norman lawyers." But, 
at least since the appearance of the work of AUGUSTIN THIERRY on the Norman Conquest, these forensic fallacies have been exploded, 
AUGUSTIN THIERRY made his readers keenly appreciate the magnitude of that political and social catastrophe, 
AUGUSTIN THIERRY depicted in vivid colours the atrocious cruelties of the conquerors, and , 
AUGUSTIN THIERRY depicted in vivid colours the sweeping and enduring innovations that they wrought, 
involving the overthrow of THE—ANCIENT constitution, 
as well as of the last of the Saxon kings, 
In his pages we see new tribunals and tenures superseding the old ones, 
new divisions of race and class introduced, 
whole districts devastated to gratify the vengeance or the caprice of the new tyrant, 
the greater part of the lands of THE—ENGLISH confiscated and divided among aliens, 
the very name of ENGLISH—MEN turned into a reproach, 
THE—ENGLISH language rejected as servile and barbarous, and
 all THE—HIGH places in Church and State for upwards of 100—YEARS filled exclusively by men of foreign race.
 No less true than eloquent is AUGUSTIN THIERRY's summing up of the social effects of the Norman Conquest on the generation that witnessed it, and , 
on many of their successors, 
AUGUSTIN THIERRY tells his reader that "if he would form a just idea of ENGLAND conquered by WILLIAM—DUKE—OF—NORMANDY, 
he must figure to himself, not a mere change of political rule, 
not the triumph of one candidate over another candidate, 
of the man of one party over the man of another party, but 
the intrusion of one people into the bosom of another people, 
the violent placing of one society over another society, which it came to destroy, and , 
the scattered fragments of which it retained only as personal property, or (to use the words of an old act)
 as 'the clothing of the soil:
 ' he must not picture to himself on the one hand, William, a king and a despot
 —ON—THE, other, subjects of William's, high and low, rich and poor, all inhabiting ENGLAND, and , 
consequently all English, but
 he must imagine two nations, 
of one of which WILLIAM—Is a member and THE—CHIEF--two nations which (if the term must be used)
 were both subject to William, but as applied to which the word has quite different senses, 
meaning in the one case subordinate, 
in the other subjugated, 
He must consider that there are two countries, two soils, included —IN—THE—same geographical circumference, 
 that of the Normans rich and free, 
that of the Saxons poor and serving, vexed by RENT and TAILLAGE, 
 THE—FORMER—full of spacious mansions, and walled and moated CASTLES, 
the latter scattered over with huts and straw, and ruined hovels, 
 that peopled with the happy and the idle, 
with men of THE—ARMY and of THE—COURT, 
with knights and nobles,--this with men of pain and labour, 
with farmers and artizans: on the one side, luxury and insolence, 
on the other, misery and envy--not the envy of the poor at the sight of opulence they cannot reach, but 
the envy of the despoiled when in presence of the despoilers."
 Perhaps the effect of Thierry's work has been to cast into the shade the ultimate good effects on ENGLAND of the Norman Conquest, 
Yet these are as undeniable as are the miseries which that conquest inflicted on our
 Saxon ancestors 
 —FROM—THE—TIME—OF —BATTLE—OF—Hastings 
 to the time of the signing of the Great Charter at Runnymede, 
That last is the true epoch of English nationality: 
it is the epoch when Anglo-Norman and ANGLO—SAXON ceased to keep aloof from each other, 
the one in haughty scorn, 
the other in sullen abhorrence, and 
when all the free men of the land, whether barons, knights, yeomen, or burghers, 
combined to lay the foundations of English freedom.
 Our Norman barons were THE—CHIEFs of that primary constitutional movement, 
 those "iron barons" whom Chatham has so nobly eulogized.
 This alone should make ENGLAND remember her obligations to the Norman Conquest, 
which planted far and wide, as a dominant class in her land,
 a martial nobility of the bravest and most energetic race that ever existed.
 It may sound paradoxical, but 
 it is in reality no exaggeration to say, with Guizot, 
[Essais sur l'Histoirs de France—PAGE—273, et seq] 
 ENGLAND owes her liberties to her having been conquered by the Normans.
 It is true that the Saxon institutions were the primitive cradle of English liberty, but
 by their own intrinsic force they could never have FOUNDED the enduring free English constitution, 
It was the Conquest that infused into them a new virtue, and
 the political liberties of ENGLAND arose from the —SITUATION in which the ANGLO—SAXON and the Anglo-Norman populations and laws found themselves placed relatively to each other in this ISLAND, 
THE—STATE—OF—ENGLAND under her last ANGLO—SAXON kings closely resembled THE—STATE—OF—France under the last Carlovingian, and
 the 1. Capetian princes, 
The crown was feeble, 
the great nobles were strong and turbulent, And 
although there was more national unity in Saxon ENGLAND than in FRANCE, 
 although THE—ENGLISH local free institutions had more reality and energy than was the case with anything
 analogous to them on the Continent 
 IN THE ELEVENTH CENTURY, 
still the probability is that the Saxon —SYSTEM of polity, if left to itself, would have fallen into utter confusion, 
out of which would have arisen 1. an aristocratic hierarchy like that which arose in FRANCE, 
next an absolute monarchy, and , 
finally a series of anarchical REVOLUTIONs, 
such as we now behold around, but not among us, 
[See Guizot, UT SUPRA]
 The latest conquerors of this ISLAND were also the bravest and the best.
 I do not except even THE—ROMAN—S, And, 
in spite of our sympathies with Harold and Hereward, and , 
our abhorrence of the founder of the New Forest, and , 
the desolator of YORKshire, 
we must confess the superiority of the Normans to the ANGLO—SAXONs and Anglo-Danes, 
10660000             ,whom they met here in  
as well as to the degenerate Frank noblesse and the crushed and servile ROMAnesque provincials, 
09120000             from whom, in , they had wrested the district in the north of Gaul which still bears the name of NORMANDY.
 It was not merely by extreme valour and ready subordination or MILITARY discipline, that
 the Normans were pre-eminent among all the conquering races of the Gothic stock, but 
 also by their instinctive FACULTY—OF—appreciating and adopting the superior civilizations which they encountered, 
Thus Duke ROLLO and his Scandinavian warriors readily embraced the creed, 
the language, 
THE—LAWs, and , 
the arts which FRANCE, in those troubled and evil times with which the Capetian dynasty commenced, 
still inherited from imperial ROMe and imperial Charlemagne.
 They adopted the customs, 
the duties, 
the obedience that the capitularies of emperors and kings had established, but 
that which they brought to the application of those laws, 
was the spirit of life, 
the spirit of liberty--the habits also of MILITARY subordination, and , 
the aptness for a state politic, 
which could reconcile the security of all with the independence of each, 
[Sismondi, HISTOIRE—DES—Francais, vol, iii—PAGE—174]
So also in all chivalric feelings, 
in enthusiastic religious zeal, 
in almost idolatrous respect to females of gentle birth,
 in generous fondness for the nascent poetry of the time, 
in a keen intellectual relish for subtle thought and disputation, 
in a taste for architectural magnificence, and , 
all courtly refinement and pageantry, the Normans were the Paladins of THE—WORLD, 
Their brilliant qualities were sullied by many darker traits of pride, 
of merciless cruelty, and
 of brutal contempt for THE—INDUSTRY, 
the rights, and , 
the feelings of all whom they considered the lower classes of mankind.
 Their gradual blending with the Saxons softened these harsh and evil points of their national character, and , 
in return they fired the duller Saxon mass with a new spirit of animation and power, 
As Campbell boldly expressed it, 
"THEY HIGH-METTLED THE BLOOD OF OUR VEINS." Small had been
 the figure which ENGLAND made IN—THE—WORLD before the coming over of the Normans, 
 and without them she never would have emerged from insignificance, 
The authority of Gibbon may be taken as decisive when he pronounces that, 
"Assuredly ENGLAND was a gainer by the Conquest." and
 we may proudly adopt the comment of THE—FRENCHman Rapin, 
THE—FRENCHman Rapin, writing of —BATTLE—OF—Hastings more than 100—YEARS ago, 
speaks of THE—REVOLUTION effected by it, as "the 1. step by which ENGLAND has arrived to that height of grandeur and glory we behold it in at present." 
[Rapin, Hist. England—PAGE—164, 
See also Sharon Turner, VOLUME—IV—PAGE—72, and, above all,
 Palgrave's NORMANDY and ENGLAND]
 The interest of this eventful struggle, by which WILLIAM—DUKE—OF—NORMANDY became —KING—OF—England, 
is materially enhanced by THE—HIGH personal characters of the competitors for our crown, 
They were 3 in number.
 One was a foreign prince from the North, 
One was a foreign prince from the South: and
 one was a native hero of the land, Harald Hardrada, 
the strongest and the most chivalric of THE—KINGS—OF—Norway, was the 1.;
[See in Snerre the Saga of Harald Hardrada]
 Duke WILLIAM—DUKE—OF—NORMANDY was the second, and 
 the Saxon Harold, the son of Earl Godwin, was the third, 
Never was a nobler prize sought by nobler champions, or striven for more gallantly, 
The Saxon triumphed over the Norwegian, and , 
the Norman triumphed over the Saxon: but 
Norse valour was never more conspicuous than when Harald Hardrada and his host fought and fell at STAMFORD Bridge, 
 nor did Saxons ever face their foes more bravely than our Harold and his men on the fatal day of Hastings.
             —DURING—the —REIGN—OF—King Edward the Confessor over this land, 
the claims of the Norwegian king to our Crown were little thought of, and 
though Hardrada's predecessor, King Magnus of Norway had on one occasion asserted that, 
by virtue of a compact with our former king, Hardicanute, he was entitled to THE—ENGLISH throne, 
no serious attempt had been made to enforce his pretensions, But 
the rivalry of the Saxon Harold and the Norman William was foreseen and bewailed by the Confessor, 
who was believed to have predicted on his death-bed the calamities that were pending over ENGLAND, 
Duke William was King Edward's kinsman, 
Harold was the HEAD—OF—the most powerful noble house, next to THE—ROYAL—blood, in ENGLAND, and personally, 
he was the bravest and most popular chieftain in the land, 
King Edward was childless, and , 
the nearest collateral heir was a puny unpromising boy, 
ENGLAND had suffered too severely 
-DURING             royal minorities, 
to make the accession of Edgar Atheling desirable, and
 long before King Edward's death, Earl Harold was the destined KING—OF—the nation's choice, 
though the favour of the Confessor was believed to lean towards the Norman duke.
 A little time before the death of King Edward, Harold was in NORMANDY.
 The causes of the voyage of the Saxon earl to the continent are doubtful, but 
10650000             the fact of his having been, in at the ducal court, and 
10650000             in the power of his rival, is indisputable, 
William made skilful and unscrupulous use of the opportunity, 
Though Harold was treated with outward courtesy and friendship, 
he was made fully aware that his liberty and life depended on his compliance with THE—DUKE's requests.
 William said to him, in apparent confidence and cordiality, 
"When King Edward and I once lived like brothers under the same roof, 
he promised that if ever he became —KING—OF—England, 
he would make me heir to his throne, 
Harold, 
I wish that thou wouldst assist me to realize this
 promise." Harold replied with expressions of assent: and further agreed,
 at William's request, 
to marry William's daughter ADELA, 
to send
 over his own sister to be married to one of William's barons, 
The crafty
 Norman was not content with this extorted promise, 
 he determined to bind
 Harold by a more solemn pledge, 
which if broken, 
would be a weight on
 the spirit of the gallant Saxon, 
a discouragement to others from
 adopting his cause, 
Before a full ASSEMBLY—OF—the Norman barons, 
Harold
 was required to do homage to Duke William, 
as the heir-apparent of the
 English crown, 
Kneeling down, 
Harold placed his hands between those of
 THE—DUKE, 
repeated the solemn form, 
by which he acknowledged the
 Duke as his lord, 
promised to him fealty and true service, 
 William exacted more, 
He had caused all the bones and relics of saints,
 that were preserved in the Norman monasteries and churches, 
to be
 collected into a chest, 
which was placed in THE—COUNCIL-room, 
covered
 over with a cloth of gold, 
On the chest of relics, 
which were thus
 concealed, 
was laid a missal, 
THE—DUKE then solemnly addressed his
 titular guest and real captive, 
"Harold, 
I require
 thee, 
before this noble assembly, 
to confirm by oath the promises which
 thou hast made me, 
to assist me in obtaining the crown of ENGLAND after
 King Edward's death, 
to marry my daughter ADELA, 
to send me thy
 sister, 
that I may give her in marriage to one of my barons." Harold,
 once more taken by surprise, 
not able to deny his former words,
 approached the missal, 
laid his hand on it, 
not knowing that the
 chest of relics was beneath, 
The old Norman chronicler, 
who describes
 the scene most minutely, 
[Wace, 
ROMAn de Rou, 
I have nearly followed his
 words] 
says, 
when Harold placed his hand on it, 
the hand trembled, 
 the flesh quivered, 
 but he swore, 
promised upon his oath, 
 take Ele 
[ADELA] 
to wife, 
to deliver up ENGLAND to THE—DUKE, 
 thereunto to do all in his power, 
ACCORDING—TO—his might and wit, 
 the death of Edward, 
if he himself should live: so help him God, 
Many
 cried, 
"God grant it!" and when Harold rose from his knees, 
THE—DUKE
 made him stand close to the chest, 
took off the pall that had
 covered it, 
showed Harold upon what holy relics he had sworn, 
 Harold was sorely alarmed at the sight.
 Harold was soon, 
after this permitted to return to ENGLAND, 
after a
 short interval, 
             —DURING which he distinguished himself by the wisdom
 and humanity with which he pacified some formidable tumults of the
 Anglo-Danes in Northumbria, 
he found himself called on to decide whether
 he would keep the oath which the Norman had obtained from him, 
or mount
 the vacant throne of ENGLAND in compliance with the nation's choice.
 King Edward the Confessor died on the 5th of January, 
 following day an ASSEMBLY—OF—the thanes and prelates present in LONDON,
 and of the citizens of-the metropolis, 
declared that Harold should be
 their king, 
It was reported that the dying Edward had nominated him as
 his successor, 
 but the sense which his countrymen entertained of his
 pre-eminent merit was the true foundation of his title to the crown.
 Harold resolved to disregard the oath which he made in NORMANDY, 
 violent and void, 
on the 7th day of that January he was anointed
 —KING—OF—England, 
received from the archbishop's hands the golden
 crown and sceptre of ENGLAND, 
also an ancient national symbol, 
 weighty battle-axe, 
He had deep and speedy need of this significant
 part of the insignia of Saxon royalty.
 A messenger from NORMANDY soon arrived to remind Harold of the oath
 which he had sworn to THE—DUKE "with his mouth, 
his hand upon good
 and holy relics." "It is true," replied the Saxon king, 
"that I took an
 oath to William, 
 but I took it under constraint: I promised what did
 not belong to me--what I could not in any way hold: my royalty is not my
 I could not lay it down against the will of THE—COUNTRY, 
nor can I
 against the will of THE—COUNTRY take a foreign wife, 
As for my sister,
 whom THE—DUKE claims that he may marry her to one of his chiefs, 
she has
 died within  
             —THE —YEAR, 
 would he have me send her corpse?"
 William sent another message, 
which met with a similar answer, 
 and then
 THE—DUKE published far and wide through CHRISTENdom what he termed the
 perjury and bad faith of his rival, 
 and proclaimed his intention of
 asserting his rights by the sword before  
0should expire, 
 of pursuing and punishing the perjurer even in those places where he
 thought he stood most strongly and most securely.
 Before, 
he commenced hostilities, 
William, 
with deep laid
 policy submitted his claims to the decision of the PAPA, 
Harold refused
 to acknowledge this tribunal, 
or to answer before an Italian priest for
 his title as an English king, 
After a formal examination of William's
 complaints by the PAPA and the cardinals, 
it was solemnly adjudged at
 ROMe that ENGLAND belonged to the Norman duke, 
 and a banner was sent to
 William from the holy see, 
which the PAPA himself had consecrated and
 blessed for the —INVASÃON—OF—this ISLAND, 
THE—CLERGY —THROUGHOUT the
 continent were now assiduous and energetic in preaching up William's
 enterprise as undertaken in the cause of God, 
Besides these spiritual
 arms (the effect of which in the eleventh century must not be measured
 by the philosophy or the indifferentism of the nineteenth), 
the Norman
 duke applied all the energies of his mind and body, 
all the resources of
 his duchy, 
all the influence he possessed among vassals or allies,
 to the collection of "the most remarkable and formidable armament which
 THE—WESTern nations had witnessed." 
[Sir James Mackintosh's History
 of ENGLAND, 
VOLUME—I—PAGE—97] 
All the adventurous spirits of CHRISTENdom
 flocked to the holy banner, 
under which Duke William, 
the most renowned
 knight and sagest general of THE—AGE, 
promised to lead them to glory
 and wealth in the fair domains of ENGLAND, 
His army was filled with
 the chivalry of continental Europe, 
all eager to save their souls by
 fighting at the PAPA's bidding, 
ardent to signalise their valour in so
 great an enterprise, 
longing also for the pay and the plunder which
 William liberally promised, 
But the Normans themselves were the pith
 and the flower of THE—ARMY, 
 and William himself was the strongest, 
 sagest, 
fiercest spirit of them all.
 —THROUGHOUT the spring and summer of 1066, 
all the seaports of NORMANDY,
 Picardy, 
Brittany rang with the busy sound of preparation, 
 opposite side of the Channel, 
King Harold collected THE—ARMY and the
 fleet with which he hoped to crush the southern invaders, 
 unexpected attack of KING—HARALD—HARDRADA of Norway upon another part
disconcerted the skilful measures which the Saxon had taken
 against the menacing armada of Duke William.
 Harold's renegade brother, 
Earl Tostig, 
had excited the Norse king to
 this enterprise, 
THE—IMPORTANCE of which has naturally been eclipsed
 by the superior interest attached to the victorious expedition of Duke
 William, 
but which was on a scale of grandeur which the Scandinavian
 ports had rarely, 
if ever, 
before witnessed, 
Hardrada's fleet consisted
 of two hundred war-ships, 
3 hundred other vessels, 
 the best warriors of Norway were in his host, 
He sailed 1, 
to the
 ORKNEYS, 
where many of the islanders joined him, 
then to YORKshire.
 After a severe KONFLIKT near YORK, 
he completely routed Earls Edwin and
 Morcar, 
THE—GOVERNORs of Northumbria, 
THE—CITY—OF—YORK opened its gates,
 and all THE—COUNTRY, 
from the Tyne to the Humber, 
submitted to him, 
 tidings of THE—DEFEAT—OF—Edwin and Morcar compelled Harold to leave
 his position an the southern coast, 
move instantly against the
 Norwegians, 
By a remarkably rapid, 
march, 
he reached YORKshire in
 4 days, 
took the Norse king and his confederates by surprise.
 Nevertheless, 
the battle which ensued, 
which was fought near
 STAMFORD Bridge, 
was desperate, 
was long doubtful, 
Unable to break
 the ranks of the Norwegian phalanx by force, 
Harold at length tempted
 them to quit their close order by a pretended flight, 
Then THE—ENGLISH
 columns burst in among them, 
a carnage ensued, 
the extent of which
 may be judged of by the exhaustion and inactivity of Norway for a
 quarter of 100—YEARS afterwards, 
10660925             KING—HARALD—HARDRADA, 
all the flower of his nobility, 
perished on the , 
at STAMFORD Bridge;  
 a battle which was a Flodden to Norway.
 Harold's victory was splendid;  
 but he had bought it dearly by the FALL—OF—many of his best officers and men;  
 and still more dearly by the opportunity which Duke William had gained of effecting an unopposed
 landing on the SUSSEX coast, 
The whole of William's shipping had
 assembled at the mouth of the Dive, 
a little river between the Seine
 and the Orme, 
as —EARLY, as the middle of August, 
THE—ARMY which he had
 collected, 
amounted to fifty thousand knights, 
ten thousand soldiers
 of inferior degree, 
Many of the knights were mounted, 
but many must have
 served on foot, 
 as it is hardly possible to believe that William could
 have found transports for the conveyance of fifty thousand war-horses
 across the Channel, 
For a long time the winds were adverse, 
 and THE—DUKE
 employed the interval that passed before he could set sail in completing
 the ORGANIZATION and in improving the discipline of his army, 
 which he
 seems to have brought into the same state of perfection, 
as was seven
 centuries and a half afterwards the boast of another army assembled on
 the same coast, 
which NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE designed (but providentially in vain)
 for a similar descent upon ENGLAND.
 It was not till the approach of the equinox that the wind veered from
 the north-east to THE—WEST, 
gave the Normans an opportunity of
 quitting the weary shores of the Dive, 
They eagerly embarked, 
set
 sail, 
 but the wind soon freshened to a gale, 
drove them along
 THE—FRENCH coast to St, 
Valery, 
where the greater part of them found
 shelter, 
 but many of their vessels were wrecked and the whole coast of
 NORMANDY was strewn with the bodies of the drowned, 
William's army
 began to grow discouraged and averse to the enterprise, 
which the very
 elements thus seemed to fight against, 
 though in reality the north-east
 wind which had cooped them so long at the mouth of the Dive, 
 western gale which had forced them into St, 
were the best
 possible friends to the invaders, 
They prevented the Normans from
 crossing the Channel until the Saxon king and his army of defence had
 been called away from the SUSSEX coast to encounter Harald Hardrada
 in YORKshire: and also until a formidable English fleet, 
which by
 King Harold's orders had been cruising in the Channel to intercept the
 Normans, 
had been obliged to disperse temporarily for the purpose of
 refitting and taking in fresh stores of provisions.
 Duke William used every expedient to re-animate the drooping spirits
 of his men at St, 
 and at last he caused the body of the patron
 saint of the place to be exhumed and carried in solemn procession, 
while
 the whole assemblage of soldiers, 
mariners, 
appurtenant priests
 implored the saint's intercession for a change of wind, 
That very night
 the wind veered, 
enabled THE—MEDIAeval Agamemnon to quit his Aulia.
 With full sails, 
a following southern breeze, 
the Norman armada
 left THE—FRENCH shores and steered for ENGLAND, 
The invaders crossed an
 undefended sea, 
found an undefended coast, 
It was in PEVENSEY—BAY
 in SUSSEX, 
at Bulverhithe, 
between THE—CASTLE—OF—Pevensey and Hastings,
 that the last conquerors of this ISLAND landed, 
on the 29th of
             ;;09;;, 
 Harold was at YORK, 
rejoicing over his recent victory, 
which had
 delivered ENGLAND from her ancient Scandinavian foes, 
resettling the
 government of the counties which Harald Hardrada had overrun, 
 the tidings reached him that Duke WILLIAM—DUKE—OF—NORMANDY and his host had
 landed on the SUSSEX shore, 
Harold instantly hurried southward to meet
 this long-expected enemy, 
The severe loss which his army had sustained
 in the battle with the Norwegians must have made it impossible for any
 large number of veteran troops to accompany him in his forced march to
 LONDON, 
thence to SUSSEX, 
He halted at the capital only 6 days; and
             —DURING that time gave orders for collecting forces from his southern
 and midland counties, 
also directed his fleet to reassemble off the
 SUSSEX coast, 
Harold was well received in LONDON, 
his summons to
 arms was promptly obeyed by citizen, 
by thane, 
by sokman, 
by ceorl; for he had shown himself
             —DURING his brief reign a just and wise king,
 affable to all men, 
active for the good of his country, 
(in the
 words of the old historian) sparing himself from no fatigue by land or
 sea, 
[See Roger de Hoveden and WILLIAM—OF—MALMESBURY, 
cited in Thierry,
 BOOK—Iii] 
He might have gathered a much more numerous force than that
 of William, 
but his recent victory had made, 
him over-confident, 
 he was irritated by THE—REPORTs of THE—COUNTRY being ravaged by the
As soon therefore, 
as he had collected a small army in LONDON,
 he marched off towards the coast: pressing forward as rapidly as his
 men could traverse Surrey and SUSSEX in the hope of taking the Normans
 unawares, 
as he had recently by a similar forced march succeeded in
 surprising the Norwegians, 
But he had now to deal with a foe equally
 brave with Harald Hardrada, 
far more skilful and wary.
 The old Norman chroniclers describe the preparations of William on
 his landing, 
with a graphic vigour, 
which would be wholly lost by
 transfusing their racy Norman couplets and terse Latin prose into the
 current style of modern history, 
It is best to follow them closely,
 though at the expense of much quaintness and occasional uncouthness of
 expression, 
They tell us how Duke William's own ship was the 1.
 of the Norman fleet, 
"It was called the Mora, 
was the gift of his
 duchess, 
Matilda, 
On the HEAD—OF—the ship in the front, 
which mariners
 call the prow, 
there was a brazen child bearing an arrow with a bended
 bow, 
His face was turned towards ENGLAND, 
thither he looked, 
 though he was about to shoot, 
The breeze became soft and sweet, 
 sea was smooth for their landing, 
The ships ran on dry land, 
 ranged by the other's side, 
There you might see the good sailors,
 the sergeants, 
squires sally forth and unload the ships, 
 cast the
 anchors, 
haul the ropes, 
bear out shields and saddles, 
land the
 war-horses and palfreys, 
The archers came forth, 
touched land the
 1., 
each with his bow strong and with his quiver full of arrows,
 slung at his side, 
All were shaven and shorn, 
 and all clad in short
 garments, 
ready to attack, 
to shoot, 
to wheel about and skirmish, 
 stood well equipped, 
of good courage for the fight, 
 and they scoured
 the whole shore, 
but found not an armed man there, 
After the archers had
 thus gone forth, 
the knights landed all armed, 
with their hauberks on,
 their shields slung at their necks, 
their helmets laced, 
They formed
 together on the shore, 
each armed, 
mounted on his war-horse: all
 had their swords girded on, 
rode forward into THE—COUNTRY with their
 lances raised, 
Then the carpenters landed, 
who had great axes in their
 hands, 
planes and adzes hung at their sides, 
They took counsel
 together, 
sought for a good spot to place a castle on, 
They had
 brought with them in the fleet, 
3 wooden CASTLES from NORMANDY, 
 pieces, 
all ready for framing together, 
they took THE—MATERIALs of
 one of these out of the ships, 
all shaped and pierced to receive the
 pins which they had brought cut and ready in large barrels, 
 and before
 evening had set in, 
they had finished a good fort on THE—ENGLISH ground,
 and there they placed their stores, 
All then ate and drank enough, 
 were right glad that they were ashore.
 "When Duke William himself landed, 
as he stepped on the shore, 
 slipped and fell forward upon his two hands, 
Forthwith all raised a loud
 cry of distress, 
'An evil sign,' said they, 
'is here.' But he cried out
 lustily, 
'See, 
my lords!  
by the splendour of God, 
[William's customary
 oath] 
I have taken possession of ENGLAND with both my hands, 
It is now
 mine, 
 and what is mine is yours.'
 "The next day they marched along the sea-shore to Hastings, 
Near
 that place THE—DUKE fortified a camp, 
set up the two other wooden
 CASTLES, 
The foragers, 
those who looked out for booty, 
seized all
 the clothing and provisions they could find, 
lest what had been brought
 by the ships should fail them, 
And THE—ENGLISH were to be seen fleeing
 before them, 
driving off their cattle, 
quitting their houses, 
 took shelter in burying-places, 
even there they were in grievous
 alarm."
 Besides the marauders from the Norman camp, 
strong bodies of cavalry
 were detached by WILLIAM—Into THE—COUNTRY, 
these, 
when Harold and
 his army made their rapid march from LONDON southward, 
fell, 
back in
 good order upon the main body of the Normans, 
reported that the
 Saxon king was rushing on like a madman, 
But Harold, 
when he found that
 his hopes of surprising his adversary were vain changed his tactics, 
 halted about seven miles from the Norman lines, 
He sent some spies, 
 spoke THE—FRENCH language, 
to examine the number and preparations of the
on their return, 
related with astonishment that there were
 more priests in William's camp than there were fighting men in the
 English army, 
They had mistaken for priests all the Norman soldiers
 who had short hair and shaven chins, 
 for THE—ENGLISH layman were then
 accustomed to wear long hair and mustachios, 
who knew the Norman
 usages, 
smiled at their words and said, 
"Those whom you have seen in
 such numbers are not priests, 
but stout soldiers, 
as they will soon make
 us feel."
 Harold's army was far inferior in number to that of the Normans, 
 some of his captains advised him to retreat upon LONDON, 
lay waste
so as to starve down the strength, 
of the invaders, 
 policy thus recommended was unquestionably the wisest, 
 for the Saxon
 fleet had now reassembled, 
intercepted all William's communications
 with NORMANDY, 
 so that as soon as his stores of provisions were
 exhausted he must have moved forward upon LONDON, 
 where Harold, 
at the
 HEAD—OF—the full MILITARY strength of the kingdom, 
could have defied his
 assault, 
probably might have witnessed his rival's destruction by
 famine and disease, 
without having to strike a single blow, 
But Harold's
 bold blood was up, 
his kindly heart could not endure to inflict
 on his South Saxon subjects even the temporary misery of wasting the
"He would not burn houses and villages, 
neither would he take
 away the substance of his people."
 Harold's brothers, 
Gurth and Leofwine, 
were with him in the camp, 
 Gurth endeavoured to persuade him to absent himself from the battle.
 The incident shows how well devised had been William's scheme of binding
 Harold by the oath on the holy relics, 
"My brother", 
said the young
 Saxon prince, 
"thou canst not deny that either by force or free-will
 thou hast made Duke William an oath on the bodies of saints, 
Why then
 risk thyself in the battle with a perjury upon thee? To us, 
who have
 sworn nothing, 
this is a holy and a just war, 
for we are fighting for
 our country, 
Leave us then, 
alone to fight this battle, 
he who has
 the right will win." Harold replied that he would not look on while
 others risked their lives for him, 
Men would hold him a coward, 
 blame him for sending his best friends where he dared not go himself, 
 resolved, 
to fight, 
to fight in person: but he was still
 too good a general to be the assailant in the ACTION, 
He strengthened
 his position on the hill where he had halted, 
by a palisade of stakes
 interlaced with osier hurdles, 
there, 
he said, 
he would defend
 himself against whoever should seek him.
 The ruins of Battle Abbey at this hour attest the place where Harold's
 army was posted, 
THE—HIGH ALTAR—OF—the abbey stood on the very spot
 where Harold's own —STANDARD was planted
             —DURING—the fight, 
 carnage was the thickest, 
Immediately after his victory William vowed to
 build an abbey on the site, 
 and a fair and stately pile soon rose there,
 where for many ages the monks prayed, 
said masses for the souls
 of those who were slain in the battle, 
whence the abbey took its name.
 Before that time the place was called Senlac, 
Little of THE—ANCIENT
 edifice now remains: but it is easy to trace among its relics and in the
 neighbourhood the scenes of THE—CHIEF incidents in the ACTION, 
 and it
 is impossible to deny the generalship shown by Harold in stationing his
 especially when we bear in mind that he was deficient in cavalry,
 the arm in which his adversary's main strength consisted.
 A neck of hills trends inwards for nearly seven miles from THE—HIGH
 ground immediately to the north-east of Hastings, 
The line of this neck
 of hills is from south-east to north-west, 
THE—USual route from
 Hastings to LONDON must, 
in ancient as in modern times, 
have been along
 its summits, 
At the distance from Hastings which has been mentioned, 
 continuous chain of hills ceases, 
A valley must be crossed, 
 other side of it, 
opposite to the last of the neck of hills, 
rises a
 high ground of some extent, 
facing to the south-east, 
This high ground,
 then termed Senlac, 
was occupied by Harold's army, 
It could not be
 attacked in front without considerable disadvantage to the assailants,
 and could hardly be turned without those engaged in the manoeuvre
 exposing themselves to a fatal charge in flank, 
while they wound round
 the base of the height, 
underneath the ridges which project from
 it on either side, 
There was a rough and thickly-wooded district in the
 rear, 
which seemed to offer Harold great facilities for rallying his
checking the progress of the enemy, 
if they should succeed in
 forcing him back from his post, 
And it seemed scarcely possible that the
if they met with any repulse, 
could save themselves from utter
 destruction, 
With such hopes and expectations (which cannot be termed
 unreasonable, 
though "Successum Dea dira negavit,") King Harold bade his
 —STANDARD be set up a little way down the slope of Senlac-hill, 
 point where the ascent from the valley was least steep, 
on which the
 fiercest attacks of the advancing enemy were sure to be directed.
 The foundation-stones of THE—HIGH ALTAR—OF—Battle Abbey have, 
-DURING             
 late years, 
been discovered, 
 and we may place our feet on the very spot
 where Harold stood with ENGLAND's banner waving over him, 
 the battle was joined, 
he defended himself to the utmost, 
 where the
 fatal arrow came down on him, 
 where he "leaned in agony on his shield, 
 and where at last he was beaten to the earth, 
with him the Saxon
 banner was beaten down, 
like him never to rise AGAIN, 
The ruins of
 the altar are a little to THE—WEST of THE—HIGH road, 
which leads from
 Hastings along the neck of hills ALREADY described, 
across the valley,
 and through the modern TOWN—OF—Battle, 
towards LONDON, 
Before a railway
 was made along this valley, 
some of the old local features were more
 easy than now to recognise, 
The eye then at once saw that the ascent
 from the valley was least steep at the point which Harold selected
 for his own post in the engagement, 
But this is still sufficiently
 discernible, 
 and we can fix the spot, 
a little lower down the slope,
 immediately in front of THE—HIGH altar, 
where the brave Kentish men
 stood, 
"whose right it was to strike 1, 
when ever the king went to
 battle," and who, 
were placed where the Normans would be most
 likely to make their 1, 
charge, 
Round Harold himself, 
 plantations wave which now surround THE—HIGH altar's ruins, 
stood the
 men of LONDON, 
"whose privilege it was to guard the KING his body, 
 place themselves around it, 
to guard his standard." On the right
 and left were ranged the other warriors of central and southern
 ENGLAND, 
whose shires the old Norman chronicler distorts in his French
 nomenclature, 
Looking thence in the direction of Hastings, 
 distinguish the "ridge of the rising ground over which the Normans
 appeared advancing." It is the nearest of the neck of hills, 
It is along
 that hill that Harold and his brothers saw approach in succession the
 3 divisions of the Norman army, 
The Normans came down that slope,
 and then formed in the valley, 
so as to assault the whole front of the
 English position, 
Duke William's own division, 
with "the best men and
 greatest strength of THE—ARMY," made the Norman centre, 
charged the
 English immediately in front of Harold's banner, 
as the nature of the
 ground had led the Saxon king to anticipate.
 There are few battles the localities of which can be more completely
 traced, 
 and the whole scene is fraught with associations of deep
 interest: but the spot which, 
most of all, 
awakens our sympathy and
 excites our feelings, 
is that where Harold himself fought and fell, 
 crumbling fragments of the grey altar-stones, 
with the wild flowers that
 cling around their base, 
seem fitting memorials of the brave Saxon who
 there bowed his head in death, 
 while the laurel-trees that are planted
 near, 
wave over the ruins, 
remind us of the Conqueror, 
who there, 
 the close of that dreadful day, 
reared his victorious —STANDARD high over
 the trampled banner of the Saxon, 
held his triumphant carousal amid
 the corses of the slain, 
with his Norman chivalry exulting around him.
 When it was known in the invaders' camp at Hastings that King Harold had
 marched southward with his power, 
but a brief interval ensued before the
 two hosts met in decisive encounter.
 William's only chance of safety lay in bringing on a general engagement; and he joyfully advanced his army from their camp on the hill over
 Hastings, 
nearer to the Saxon position, 
But he neglected no means of
 weakening his opponent, 
renewed his summonses and demands on Harold
 with an ostentatioUS—AIR of sanctity and moderation.
 "A monk named Hugues Maigrot came in William's name to call upon the
 Saxon king to do one of 3 things--either to resign his royalty in
 favour of William, 
or to refer it to the arbitration of the PAPA to
 decide which of the two ought to be king, 
or to let it be determined
 by the issue of a single combat, 
Harold abruptly replied, 
'I will not
 resign my title, 
I will not refer it to the PAPA, 
nor will I accept the
 single combat.' He was far from being deficient in bravery, 
 but he was
 no more at liberty to stake the crown which he had received from a whole
 people on the chance of a duel, 
than to deposit it in the hands of an
 Italian priest, 
William was not at all ruffled by the Saxon's refusal,
 but steadily pursuing the course of his calculated measures, 
sent the
 Norman monk AGAIN, 
after giving him these instructions:--'Go and tell
 Harold, 
that if he will keep his former compact with me, 
I will leave
 to him all THE—COUNTRY which is beyond the Humber, 
will give his
 brother Gurth all the lands which Godwin held, 
If he still persist in
 refusing my offers, 
then thou shalt tell him, 
before all his people,
 that he is a perjurer and a liar, 
 that he, 
all who shall support
are excommunicated by the mouth of the PAPA, 
 and that the bull to
 that effect is in my hands.'
 "Hugues Maigrot delivered this message in a solemn tone, 
 and the Norman
 chronicle says that at the word EXCOMMUNICATION, 
THE—ENGLISH chiefs
 looked at one another as if some great danger were impending, 
 them then spoke as follows: 'We must fight, 
whatever may be THE—DANGER
 to us, 
 for what we have to consiDER—IS not whether we shall accept
 and receive a new lord as if our king were dead: the case is quite
 otherwise, 
The Norman has given our lands to his captains, 
to his
 knights, 
to all his people, 
the greater part of whom have ALREADY done
 homage to him for them, 
 they will all look for their gift, 
if their
 Duke become our king, 
 and he himself is bound to deliver up to them our
 goods, 
our wives, 
our daughters: all is promised to them beforehand.
 They come, 
not only to ruin us, 
but to ruin our descendants also, 
 take from us THE—COUNTRY of our ancestors and what shall we do--whither
 shall we go--when we have no longer a country?' THE—ENGLISH promised by
 a unanimous oath, 
to make neither peace, 
nor truce nor treaty, 
 invader, 
but to die, 
or drive away the Normans." 
[Thierry]
 The 13th of ;;10;; was occupied in these negotiations, 
 and at night the
 Duke announced to his men that the next day would, 
be THE—DAY of
That night is said to have been passed by the two armies in very
 different manners, 
The Saxon soldiers spent it in joviality, 
singing
 their national songs, 
draining huge horns of ale and wine round
 their camp-fires, 
The Normans, 
when they had looked to their arms and
 horses, 
confessed themselves to the priests, 
with whom their camp was
 thronged, 
received the sacrament by thousands at a time.
 On Saturday, 
the 14th of ;;10;;, 
was fought the great battle.
 It is not difficult to compose a narrative of its principal incidents,
 from the historical information which we possess, 
especially if aided
 by an examination of the ground, 
But it is far better to adopt the
 spirit-stirring words of the old chroniclers, 
who wrote while the
 recollections of the battle were yet fresh, 
while the feelings and
 prejudices of the combatants yet glowed in the bosoms of their near
 descendants, 
Robert Wace, 
the Norman poet, 
who presented his "ROMAn de
 Rou" to our HENRY—II., 
is the most picturesque and animated of the old
 writers, 
 and from him we can obtain a more vivid and full description of
 the KONFLIKT, 
than even the most brilliant romance-writer of the present
 time can supply, 
We have also an antique memorial of the battle, 
more to
 be relied on than either chronicler or poet (and which confirms
 Wace's narrative remarkably), 
in the celebrated Bayeux tapestry, 
 represents the principal scenes of Duke William's expedition, 
 circumstances connected with it, 
in minute though occasionally grotesque
 details, 
which was undoubtedly the PRODUCTION of the same age in
 which the battle took place, 
 whether we admit or reject the legend that
 Queen Matilda and the ladies of her court wrought it with their own
 hands in honour of THE—ROYAL—Conqueror.
 Let us therefore suffer the old Norman chronicler to transport our
 imaginations to the fair SUSSEX scenery, 
north-west of Hastings, 
 its breezy uplands, 
its grassy slopes, 
ridges of open down swelling
 inland from the sparkling sea, 
its scattered copses, 
its denser
 glades of intervening forests, 
clad in all the varied tints of autumn,
 as they appeared —ON—THE—MORNING—OF—the fourteenth of ;;10;;, 
seven
 hundred and eighty-5—YEARS—AGO, 
The Norman host is pouring forth
 from its tents, 
 and each troop, 
each company, 
is forming fast under
 the banner of its leader, 
The masses have been sung, 
which were finished
 betimes in the morning, 
 the barons have all assembled round Duke
 and THE—DUKE has ordered that THE—ARMY shall be formed in 3
 divisions, 
so as to make the attack upon the Saxon position in 3
 places, 
THE—DUKE stood on a hill where he could best see his men, 
 the
 barons surrounded him, 
he spake to them proudly, 
He told them how he
 trusted them, 
how all that he gained should be theirs, 
 and how sure
 he felt of conquest, 
for in all THE—WORLD there was not so brave an army
 or such good men and true as were then forming around him, 
Then they
 cheered him in turn, 
cried out, 
"'You will not see one coward, 
 none
 here will fear to die for love of you, 
if need be.' And he answered
'I thank you well, 
For God's sake spare not, 
 strike hard at the
 beginning, 
 stay not to take spoil, 
 all the booty shall be in common,
 and there will be plenty for everyone, 
There will be no safety in asking
 quarter or in fight: THE—ENGLISH will never love or spare a Norman.
 Felons they were, 
felons they are, 
 false they were, 
false they
 will be, 
Show no weakness towards them, 
for they will have no pity on
 you, 
Neither the coward for running well, 
nor the bold man for smiting
 well, 
will be the better liked by THE—ENGLISH, 
nor will any be the more
 spared on either account, 
You may fly to the sea, 
but you can fly no
 further, 
 you will find neither ships nor bridge there, 
 there will be no
 sailors to receive you, 
 and THE—ENGLISH will overtake you there and slay
 you in your shame, 
More of you will die in flight than in the battle.
as flight will not secure you, 
fight, 
you will conquer, 
I have
 no doubt of THE—VICTORY: we are come for glory, 
THE—VICTORY is in our
we may make sure of obtaining it if we so please.' As the
 Duke was speaking thus, 
would yet have spoken more, 
William Fitz
 Osber rode up with his horse all coated with iron: 'Sire,' said he, 
'we
 tarry here too long, 
let us all arm ourselves, 
ALLONS!  
ALLONS!'
 "Then all went to their tents and armed themselves as they best might; and THE—DUKE was very busy, 
giving every one his orders, 
 and he was
 courteous to all the vassals, 
giving away many arms and horses to them.
 When he prepared to arm himself, 
he called 1, 
for his good hauberk,
 and a man brought it on his arm, 
placed it before him, 
but in
 putting his head in, 
to get it on, 
he unawares turned it the wrong way,
 with the back part in front, 
He soon changed it, 
but when he saw that
 those who stood by were sorely alarmed, 
'I have seen many a man
if such a thing had happened to him, 
would not have borne arms,
 or entered the field the same day, 
 but I never believed in omens, 
I
 never will, 
I trust in God, 
for He does in all things His pleasure, 
 ordains what is to come to pass, 
ACCORDING—TO—His will, 
I have never
 liked fortune-tellers, 
nor believed in diviners, 
 but I commend myself to
 our Lady, 
Let not this mischance give you trouble, 
The hauberk which
 was turned wrong, 
then set right by me, 
signifies that a change will
 arise out of the matter which we are now stirring, 
You shall see the
 name of duke changed into king, 
Yea, 
a king shall I be, 
who hitherto
 have been but duke.' Then he crossed himself and straightway took his
 hauberk, 
stooped his head, 
put it on aright, 
laced his helmet,
 and girt on his sword, 
which a varlet brought him, 
Then THE—DUKE called
 for his good horse--a better could not be found, 
It had been sent him
 by a KING—OF—SPAIN, 
out of very great friendship, 
Neither arms nor the
 press of fighting men did it fear, 
if its lord spurred it on, 
Walter
 Giffard brought it, 
THE—DUKE stretched out his hand, 
took the reins, 
put
 foot in stirrup, 
mounted, 
 and the good horse pawed, 
pranced, 
reared
 himself up, 
curvetted, 
The VisCOUNT—OF—Toarz saw how THE—DUKE bore
 himself in arms, 
said to his people that were around him, 
'Never
 have I seen a man so fairly armed, 
nor one who rods so gallantly, 
 bore his arms or became his hauberk so well, 
 neither any one who bore
 his lance so gracefully, 
or sat his horse and managed him so nobly.
 There is no such knight under heaven!  
a fair count he is, 
fair king
 he will be, 
Let him fight, 
he shall overcome: shame be to the man
 who shall fail him.'
 "Then THE—DUKE called for the —STANDARD which the PAPA had sent him, 
 he who bore it having unfolded it, 
THE—DUKE took it, 
called to Raol
 de Conches, 
'Bear my standard,' said he, 
'for I would not but do you
 right, 
 by right and by ancestry your line are standard-bearers of
 NORMANDY, 
very good knights have they all been.' But Raol said that
 he would serve THE—DUKE that day in other guise, 
would fight the
 English with his hand as long as life should last, 
Then THE—DUKE bade
 Galtier Giffart bear the standard, 
But he was old and white-headed,
 and bade THE—DUKE give the —STANDARD to some younger and stronger man to
 carry, 
Then THE—DUKE said fiercely, 
'By the splendour of God, 
my lords,
 I think you mean to betray and fail me in this great need.'--'Sire,'
 said Giffart, 
'not so!  
we have done no treason, 
nor do I refuse from any
 felony towards you, 
 but I have to lead a great chivalry, 
both hired men
 and THE—MEN—OF—my fief, 
Never had I such good means of serving you as
 I now have, 
 and if God please, 
I will serve you, 
 if need be, 
I will die
 for you, 
will give my own heart for yours.
 "'By my faith,' quoth THE—DUKE, 
'I always loved thee, 
now I love
 thee more, 
 if I survive THIS—DAY, 
thou shalt be the better for it all
 thy days.' Then he called out a knight, 
whom he had heard much praised,
 Tosteins Fitz-Rou le Blanc by name, 
whose abode was at Bec-en-Caux, 
To
 him he delivered the standard, 
 and Tosteins took it right cheerfully,
 and bowed low to him in thanks, 
bore it gallantly, 
with good
 heart, 
His kindred still have quittance of all service for their
 inheritance on that account, 
their heirs are entitled so to hold
 their inheritance for ever.
 "William sat on his war-horse, 
called on Rogier, 
whom they call De
 Mongomeri, 
'I rely much upon you,' said he: 'lead your men thitherward,
 and attack them from that side, 
the son of Osber the seneschal,
 a right good vassal, 
shall go with you and help in the attack, 
you
 shall have THE—MEN—OF—BOULOGNE and Poix, 
all my soldiers, 
Alain
 Fergert and Ameri shall attack on the other side, 
 they shall lead the
 Poitevins and the Bretons, 
all the Barons of Maine, 
 and I, 
with my
 own great men, 
my friends and kindred, 
will fight in the middle throng,
 where the battle shall be the hottest.'
 "The barons, 
knights, 
men-at-arms were all now armed, 
 foot-soldiers were well equipped, 
each bearing bow and sword, 
 on their
 heads were caps, 
to their feet were bound buskins, 
Some had good
 hides which they had bound round their bodies, 
 and many were clad in
 frocks, 
had quivers and bows hung to their girdles, 
The knights
 had hauberks and swords, 
boots of steel and shining helmets, 
 shields at
 their necks, 
in their hands lances, 
And all had their cognizances,
 so that each might know his fellow, 
Norman might not strike Norman,
 nor Frenchman kill his countryman by mistake, 
Those on foot led the
with serried ranks, 
bearing their bows, 
The knights rode next,
 supporting the archers from behind, 
Thus both horse and foot kept their
 course and order of march as they began, 
 in close ranks at a gentle
 pace, 
that the one might not pass or separate from the other, 
All went
 firmly and compactly, 
bearing themselves gallantly.
 "Harold had summoned his men, 
earls, 
barons, 
vavassours, 
from, 
 CASTLES and the cities, 
 from the ports, 
the villages, 
boroughs, 
 peasants were also called together from the villages, 
bearing such arms
 as they found, 
 clubs and great picks, 
iron forge and stages, 
 had enclosed the place where Harold was, 
with his friends and the barons
 of THE—COUNTRY whom he had summoned and called together.
 "Those of LONDON had come at once, 
those of Kent, 
Hartfort, 
 Essesse, 
 those of Suree and Susesse, 
of St, 
Edmund and Sufoc, 
 of Norwis
 and Norfoc, 
 of Cantorbierre and Stanfort Bedefort and Hundetone, 
The men
 of Northanton also came, 
 and those of Eurowic and Bokingkeham, 
of Bed
 and Notinkeham, 
Lindesie and Nichole, 
There came also from THE—WEST
 all, 
who heard the summons, 
 and very many were to be seen coming from
 Salebiere and Dorset, 
from Bat and from Somerset, 
Many came, 
from
 about Glocestre, 
many from Wirecestre, 
from Wincestre, 
Hontesire,
 and Brichesire, 
 and many more from other counties that we have not
 named, 
cannot indeed recount, 
All who could bear arms, 
 learnt THE—NEWS of THE—DUKE's arrival, 
came to defend the land, 
But none
 came from beyond Humbre, 
for they had other business upon their hands; the Danes and Tosti having much damaged and weakened them.
 "Harold knew that the Normans would come and attack him hand to hand, 
 he had —EARLY, enclosed the field in which he placed his men, 
He made them
 arm early, 
range themselves for the battle, 
 he himself having put on
 arms and equipments that became such a lord, 
THE—DUKE, 
ought
 to seek him, 
as he wanted to conquer ENGLAND, 
 and it became him to abide
 the attack who had to defend the land, 
He commanded THE—PEOPLE,
 and counselled his barons to keep themselves altogether, 
defend
 themselves in a body, 
 for if they once separated, 
they would with
 difficulty recover themselves, 
'The Normans,' he said, 
'are good
 vassals, 
valiant on foot and on horseback, 
 good knights are they on
 horseback, 
well used to battle, 
 all is lost if they once penetrate
 our ranks, 
They have brought long lances and swords, 
but you have
 pointed lances and keen-edged bills, 
 and I do not expect that their arms
 can stand against yours, 
Cleave wherever you can, 
 it will be ill done if
 you spare aught.'
 "THE—ENGLISH had built up a fence before them with their shields, 
 with ash and other wood, 
 and had well joined and wattled in the whole
 work, 
so as not to leave even a crevice, 
 and thus they had a BARRICADE
 in their front, 
through which any Norman who would attack them must
pass, 
Being covered in this way by their shields and BARRICADEs,
 their aim was to defend themselves: and if they had remained steady for
 that purpose, 
they would not have been conquered that day, 
 for every
 Norman who made his way in, 
lost his life, 
either by hatchet, 
or bill,
 by club, 
or other weapons, 
They wore short and close hauberks, 
 helmets that hung over their garments, 
King Harold issued orders and
 made proclamation round, 
that all should be ranged with their faces
 towards the enemy, 
 and that no one should move from where he was, 
whoever came, 
might find them ready, 
 and that whatever any one, 
be
 he Norman or other, 
should do, 
each should do his best to defend his
 own place, 
Then he ordered THE—MEN—OF—Kent to go where the Normans
 were likely to make the attack, 
 for they say that THE—MEN—OF—Kent are
 entitled to strike 1., 
 and that whenever the king goes to battle, 
blow belongs to them, 
The right of THE—MEN—OF—LONDON is to guard
 the KING his body, 
to place themselves around him, 
to guard his
 standard, 
 and they were accordingly placed by the —STANDARD to watch and
 defend it.
 "When Harold had made his reply, 
given his orders, 
he came into
 the midst of THE—ENGLISH, 
dismounted by the side of the standard:
 Leofwin and Gurth, 
his brothers, 
were with him, 
around him he had
 barons enough, 
as he stood by his standard, 
which was in truth a noble
 one, 
sparkling with gold and precious stones, 
After THE—VICTORY, 
William
 sent it to the PAPA, 
to prove and commemorate his great conquest and
 glory, 
THE—ENGLISH stood in close ranks, 
ready and eager for the fight; and they moreover made a fosse, 
which went across the field, 
guarding
 one side of their army,
 "Meanwhile the Normans appeared advancing over the ridge of a rising
 ground, 
 and the 1, 
DIVISION—OF—their troops moved onwards along the
 hill and across a vallley, 
presently another division, 
still larger,
 came in sight, 
close following upon the 1., 
they were led towards
 another part of the field, 
forming together as the 1, 
body had done.
 And while Harold saw and examined them, 
was pointing them out to
 Gurth, 
a fresh company came in sight, 
covering all the plain, 
 midst of them was raised the —STANDARD that came from ROMe, 
Near it was
the best men and greatest strength of THE—ARMY were there.
 The good knights, 
the good vassals, 
brave warriors were there, 
 there were gathered together the gentle barons, 
the good archers,
 and the men-at-arms, 
whose duty it was to guard THE—DUKE, 
range
 themselves around him, 
The youths and common herd of the camp, 
 business was not to join in the battle, 
but to take care of the harness
 and stores, 
moved on towards a rising ground, 
The priests and the clerks
 also ascended a hill, 
there to offer up prayers to God, 
watch the
 event of the battle.
 "THE—ENGLISH stood firm on foot in close ranks, 
carried themselves
 right boldly, 
Each man had his hauberk on, 
with his sword girt, 
 shield at his neck, 
Great hatchets were also slung at their necks, 
 which they expected to strike heavy blows.
 "The Normans brought on the 3 divisions of their army to attack
 at different places, 
They set out in 3 companies, 
in 3
 companies did they fight, 
second had come up, 
 advanced the third, 
which was the greatest, 
 with that came THE—DUKE with
 his own men, 
all moved boldly forward.
 "As soon as the two armies were in full view of each other, 
great noise
 and tumult arose, 
You might hear the sound of many trumpets, 
of bugles,
 and of horns: and then you might see men ranging themselves in line,
 lifting their shields, 
raising their lances, 
bending their bows,
 handling their arrows, 
ready for assault and defence.
 "THE—ENGLISH stood ready to their post, 
the Normans still moved on, 
 when they drew near, 
THE—ENGLISH were to be seen stirring to and fro; were going and coming, 
 troops ranging themselves in order, 
 some with
 their colour rising, 
others turning pale, 
 some making ready their arms,
 others raising their shields, 
 the brave man rousing himself to fight,
 the coward trembling at the approach of danger.
 "Then Taillefer, 
who sang right well, 
rode mounted on a swift horse,
 before THE—DUKE, 
singing of Charlemagne and of ROLAND, 
of Olivier and
 the Peers who died in RONCESVALLES, 
when they drew nigh to the
 English, 
'A boon, 
sire!' cried Taillefer, 
 'I have long served you, 
 you owe me for all such service, 
To-day, 
so please you, 
you shall repay
I ask as my guerdon, 
beseech you for it earnestly, 
that you will
 allow me to strike the 1, 
blow in the battle!' And THE—DUKE answered,
 'I grant it.' Then Taillefer put his horse to a gallop, 
charging before
 all the rest, 
struck an ENGLISH—MAN dead, 
driving his lance below the
 breast into his body, 
stretching him upon the ground, 
Then he drew
 his sword, 
struck another, 
crying out, 
'Come on, 
come on!  
What do
 ye, 
sirs!  
lay on, 
lay on!' At the second blow he struck, 
surrounded and slew him, 
Forthwith arose the noise
 and cry of war, 
on either side THE—PEOPLE put themselves in motion.
 "The Normans moved on to the assault, 
THE—ENGLISH defended
 themselves well, 
Some were striking, 
others urging onwards, 
 all were
 bold, 
cast aside fear, 
now, 
behold, 
that battle was gathered,
 whereof the fame is yet mighty.
 "Loud and far resounded the bray of the horns, 
 and the shocks of the
 lances, 
the mighty strokes of maces, 
the quick clashing of swords.
 One while THE—ENGLISHMEN rushed on, 
another while they fell back, 
 one
 while the men from over the sea charged onwards, 
AGAIN at other
 times retreated, 
The Normans shouted 'Dex aie,' THE—ENGLISH people
 'Out.' Then came the cunning manoeuvres, 
the rude shocks and strokes
 of the lance and blows of the swords, 
among the sergeants and soldiers,
 both English and Norman.
 "When THE—ENGLISH fall, 
the Normans shout, 
Each side taunts and defies
 the other, 
yet neither knoweth what the other saith, 
 and the Normans say
 THE—ENGLISH bark, 
because they understand not their speech.
 "Some wax strong, 
others weak: the brave exult, 
but the cowards tremble,
 as men who are sore dismayed, 
The Normans press on the assault, 
 English defend their post well: they pierce the hauberks, 
cleave the
 shields, 
receive and return mighty blows, 
AGAIN, 
some press forwards,
 others yield, 
 and thus in various ways the struggle proceeds, 
 plain was a fosse, 
which the Normans had now behind them, 
having passed
 it in the fight without regarding it, 
But THE—ENGLISH charged, 
drove
 the Normans before them till they made them fall back upon this fosse,
 overthrowing into it horses and men, 
Many were to be seen falling
 therein, 
rolling one over the other, 
with their faces to the earth, 
 unable to rise, 
Many of THE—ENGLISH, 
whom the Normans drew down
 along with them, 
died there, 
At no time
             —DURING—THE—DAY's battle did so
 many Normans die as perished in that fosse, 
So those said who saw the
 dead.
 "The varlets who were set to guard the harness began to abandon it as
 they saw the loss of THE—FRENCHmen, 
when thrown back upon the fosse
 without power to recover themselves, 
Being greatly alarmed at seeing
 the difficulty in restoring order, 
they began to quit the harness, 
 sought around, 
not knowing where to find shelter, 
Then Duke William's
 brother, 
Odo, 
the good priest, 
the Bishop of Bayeux, 
galloped up, 
 said to them, 
'Stand fast!  
stand fast!  
be quiet and move not!  
fear
 nothing, 
for if God please, 
we shall conquer yet.' So they took courage,
 and rested where they were, 
 and Odo returned galloping back to where the
 battle was most fierce, 
was of great service on that day, 
He had put
 hauberk on, 
over a white aube, 
wide in the body, 
with the sleeve tight; and sat on a white horse, 
so that all might recognise him, 
In his hand
 he held a mace, 
wherever he saw most need he held up and stationed
 the knights, 
often urged them on to assault and strike the enemy.
 "From nine o'clock in the morning, 
when the combat began, 
till 3
 o'clock came, 
the battle was up and down, 
this way and that, 
no one
 knew who would conquer and win the land, 
Both sides stood so firm and
 fought so well, 
that no one could guess which would prevail, 
The Norman
 archers with their bows shot thickly upon THE—ENGLISH, 
 but they covered
 themselves with their shields, 
so that the arrows could not reach their
 bodies, 
nor do any mischief, 
how true soever was their aim, 
or however
 well they shot, 
Then the Normans determined to shoot their arrows
 upwards into the air, 
so that they might fall on their enemies' heads,
 and strike their faces, 
The archers adopted this scheme, 
shot up
 into the air towards THE—ENGLISH, 
 and the arrows in falling struck their
 heads and faces, 
put out the eyes of many, 
 and all feared to open
 their eyes, 
or leave their faces unguarded.
 "The arrows now flew thicker than rain before the wind, 
 fast sped the
 shafts that THE—ENGLISH called 'wibetes.' Then it was that an arrow,
 that had been thus shot upwards, 
struck Harold above his right eye and
 put it out, 
In his agony he drew the arrow and threw it away, 
breaking
 it with his hands, 
 and the pain to his head was so great, 
that he leaned
 upon his shield, 
So THE—ENGLISH were wont to say, 
still say to the
 French, 
that the arrow was well shot which was so sent up against
 and that the archer won them great glory, 
who thus put out
 Harold's eye.
That old classic world, 
the HISTORY—OF—which
 occupies so large a portion of our —EARLY, studies, 
lay, 
in the eighth Jh. of our era, 
utterly exanimate and overthrown, 
On the north the
on the south THE—ARAB, 
was rending away its provinces, 
At last
 the spoilers encountered one another, 
each striving for the full mastery
 of the prey, 
Their KONFLIKT brought back upon the memory of Gibbon the
 old Homeric simile, 
where the strife of Hector and Patroclus over the
 dead body of Cebriones is compared to the combat of two lions, 
 in their hate and hunger fight together on the mountain-tops over the
 carcass of a slaughtered stag: and the reluctant yielding of the Saracen
 power to the superior might of the Northern warriors, 
might not inaptly
 recall those other lines of the same book of the Iliad, 
 downFALL—OF—Patroclus beneath Hector is likened to the forced yielding
 of the panting and exhausted wild boar, 
that had long and furiously
 fought with a superior beast of prey for THE—POSSESSION—OF—the fountain
 among the rocks, 
 Although 3 centuries had passed away since the Germanic conquerors
 of ROMe had crossed the Rhine, 
no amalgamation of the
 various races into one people, 
 been established in THE—COUNTRY, 
AT—THE—TIME when CHARLES Martel was
 called on to repel the menacing tide of Saracenic —INVASÃON from the
their eager expectations of new wars were excited to the
 utmost on the re-appointment by THE—CALIF—OF—ABDERRAHMAN—IBN—ABDILLAH
 Alghafeki to THE—GOVERNMENTt of that country, 
 years of his second administration in SPAIN were occupied in severe
This is a benefit which the inquirer into
 antiquity so seldom can obtain, 
 instance of —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
makes us think the historical testimony
 respecting that great event more certain and satisfactory than is
 the case in many other instances, 
where we possess abundant details
 respecting MILITARY exploits, 
but where those details come to us from
 the annalist of one nation only, 
 and where we have, 
consequently, 
no
 safeguard against the exaggerations, 
the distortions, 
the fictions
 which national vanity has so often put forth in the garb and under the
 title of history, 
THE—ARABian writers who recorded the conquests and
 wars of their countrymen in SPAIN, 
have narrated also the expedition
 into Gaul of their great Emir, 
his defeat and death near TOURS in
 battle with the host of THE—FRANKS under King Caldus, 
the name into
 which they metamorphose CHARLES, 
[THE—ARABian chronicles were compiled
 and translated into Spanish by Don Jose Antonio Conde, 
in his "Historia
—de—la—Dominacion de los Arabos an Espana," published at MADRID in 1820.
 Conde's plan, 
which I have endeavoured to follow, 
was to present both
 the style and spirit of his oriental authorities, 
so that we find in
 his pages a genuine Saracenic narrative of THE—WARs in Western Europe
 They tell us how there was WAR—BETWEEN—the COUNT—OF—the Frankish
 frontier and the Moslems, 
how the count gathered together all his
"But," say the
 Arabian chroniclers, 
"ABDERRAHMAN drove them back, 
 and the men of
 ABDERRAHMAN were puffed up in spirit by their repeated successes, 
 they were full of trust in the valour and the practice in WAR—OF—their
 Emir, 
passed the river Garonne,
 and laid waste THE—COUNTRY, 
took captives without number, 
 army went through all places like a desolating storm, 
Prosperity made
 those warriors insatiable, 
At the —PASSAGE of the river, 
ABDERRAHMAN
 overthrew the count, 
the count retired into his stronghold, 
 Moslems fought against it, 
slew the count; for everything gave way to their scimetars, 
which were the robbers of
 lives, 
told him of the havoc made
 by the Moslem horsemen, 
how they rode at their will through all the
 land of Narbonne TOULOUSE, 
BORDEAUX, 
they told THE—KING—OF—the
 death of their count, 
 offered to aid them, 
in the 114th year 
he mounted
 his home, 
 went against the Moslems, 
he came upon them at the great city of
ABDERRAHMAN and other prudent cavaliers saw the disorder of
 the Moslem troops, 
who were loaded with spoil, 
 but they did not venture
 to displease the soldiers by ordering them to abandon everything except
 their arms and war-horses, 
ABDERRAHMAN trusted in the valour of his
in the good fortune which had ever attended him, 
 (THE—ARAB writer remarks) such defect of discipline always is fatal to
So ABDERRAHMAN and his host attacked TOURS to gain still more
 spoil, 
they fought against it so fiercely that they stormed THE—CITY
 almost before the eyes of THE—ARMY that came to save it, 
 and the fury
 and the cruelty of the Moslems towards THE—INHABITANTS—OF—THE—CITY were
 like the fury and cruelty of raging tigers, 
It was manifest," adds the
 Arab, 
the two great hosts of the
 two languages and the two creeds were set in array against each other.
 The hearts of ABDERRAHMAN, 
his captains, 
his men were filled with
 wrath and pride, 
they were the 1, 
to begin the fight, 
The Moslem
 horseman dashed fierce and frequent forward against the battalions of
 THE—FRANKS, 
who resisted manfully, 
Night parted the two armies: but in the
 grey of the morning the Moslems returned to the battle, 
Their cavaliers
 had soon hewn their way into the centre of the CHRISTIAN host, 
But many
 of the Moslems were fearful for the safety of the spoil which they had
 stored in their tents, 
a false cry arose in their ranks that some of
 the enemy were plundering the camp, 
 WHEREUPON several squadrons of the
 Moslem horseman rode off to protect their tents, 
But it seemed as if
 they fled, 
 and all the host was troubled, 
while ABDERRAHMAN strove
 to check their tumult, 
THE—WARriors of
 THE—FRANKS came around him, 
Then all the host fled before the enemy, 
many died
 in the flight, 
This deadly DEFEAT—OF—the Moslems, 
the loss of the
 great leader and good cavalier ABDERRAHMAN, 
took place in the hundred
 and fifteenth year.
 It would be difficult to expect from an adversary a more explicit
 confession of having been thoroughly vanquished, 
than THE—ARABs here
 accord to THE—EUropeans, 
The points on which their narrative differs
 from those of the Christians,--as to how many days the KONFLIKT
 lasted, 
whether the assailed city was actually rescued or not, 
 like,--are of little moment compared with the admitted great fact that
 there was a decisive trial of strength between Frank and Saracen, 
 which THE—FORMER—conquered, 
The enduring importance of the battle
 of TOURS in the eyes of the Moslems, 
is attested not only by the
 expressions of "the deadly battle," and "the disgraceful overthrow,"
 which their writers constantly employ when referring to it, 
but also
 by the fact that no further serious attempts at conquest beyond the
 Pyrenees were made by THE—SARACENS, 
which the genius of
 Charlemagne FOUNDED, 
throughout which his iron will imposed peace on
 the old anarchy of creeds and races, 
did not indeed retain its integrity
 after its great ruler's death, 
Fresh troubles came over Europe, 
 CHRISTENdom, 
though disunited, 
was safe, 
The progress of civilization,
 and the development of THE—NATIONALities and governments of modern
went forward in not uninterrupted, 
but,
 ultimately, 
certain career.
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN —BATTLE—OF—TOURS, 
07320000             ,
THE —BATTLE—OF—HASTINGS, 
This monarch has justly been termed
 the principal regenerator of Western Europe, 
after the destruction of
 THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE, 
The —EARLY, death of his brother, 
Carloman, 
left him
 sole master of the dominions of THE—FRANKS, 
by a succession
 of victorioUS—WARs, 
 conquered the Lombards, 
 return, 
acknowledged CHARLES as suzerain of ITALY, 
 and —J—IM, 800,
 Leo III, 
in the name of THE—ROMAN—PEOPLE, 
solemnly crowned Charlemagne
 at ROMe, 
as EMPEROR—OF—THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE of THE—WEST, 
In SPAIN,
 Charlemagne ruled THE—COUNTRY between THE—PYRENEES and the EBRO, 
 his most important conquests were effected on THE—EASTern side of
 his original kingdom, 
over the Sclavonians of Bohemia, 
the Avars of
 Pannonia, 
over the previously uncivilized German tribes who had
 remained in their fatherland, 
The old Saxons were his most obstinate
his wars with them lasted for thirty years, 
Under him
 the greater part of GERMANY was compulsorily civilized, 
converted
 from Paganism to Christianity, 
His empire extended eastward as far as
 the ELBE, 
the Saal, 
the Bohemian mountains, 
a line drawn from thence
 crossing the Danube above Vienna, 
prolonged to the Gulf of Istria.
 —THROUGHOUT this vast assemblage of provinces, 
Charlemagne established an
 organized and firm government, 
But it is not as a mere conqueror that he
 demands admiration, 
"In a life restlessly active, 
we see him reforming
 the coinage, 
establishing the legal divisions of money, 
gathering
 about him the learned of every country, 
 founding schools and
 collecting libraries, 
 interfering, 
with the air of a king, 
in religious
 controversies, 
 attempting, 
for the sake of commerce, 
the magnificent
 enterprise of uniting the Rhine and the Danube, 
meditating to mould
 the discordant code of ROMAn and barbarian laws into an uniform system."
[Hallam, 
UT SUPRA]
 814-888, 
Repeated partitions of THE—EMPIRE and CIVIL—WARs between
 Charlemagne's descendants, 
THE—KINGDOM—OF— FRANCE is finally
 SEPARATED—FROM GERMANY and ITALY, 
In 982, 
Otho the Great, 
of GERMANY,
 revives THE—IMPERIAL—dignity.
 827, 
Egbert, 
KING—OF—Wessex, 
acquires the supremacy over the ANGLO—SAXON
 kingdoms.
Danish squadron attacks part of THE—ENGLISH coast.
 The Danes, 
or Northmen, 
had begun their ravages in FRANCE a few years
 earlier, 
For two centuries SCANDINAVIA[SCANDINAVIEN] 
sends out fleet after fleet of
 sea-rovers, 
who desolate all THE—WESTern kingdoms of Europe, 
in many
 cases effect permanent conquests.
 871-900, 
Reign of Alfred in ENGLAND, 
 he rescues ENGLAND from the Danish invaders.
 911, 
Hrolf (or
 Duke ROLLO, 
as he thenceforth was termed) and his army of Scandinavian
 warriors, 
become the ruling class of the population of the province,
 which is called after them NORMANDY.
10160000             , 
Four knights from NORMANDY, 
who had been on a pilgrimage to the
 Holy Land, 
while returning through ITALY, 
head THE—PEOPLE—OF—SALERNO in
 repelling an attack of a—BAND—of Saracen corsairs, 
In the next year many
 adventurers from NORMANDY settle in ITALY, 
where they conquer Apulia (10400000             ), 
afterwards (10600000             ) Sicily.
10170000             , 
Canute, 
KING—OF—Denmark, 
becomes KING—OF—ENGLAND, 
On the death of
 the last of his sons, 
in 1041, 
the Saxon line is restored, 
Edward
 the Confessor (who had been bred IN—THE—COURT—OF—THE—DUKE—OF—NORMANDY),
 is called by THE—ENGLISH to the throne of this ISLAND, 
as the
 representative of THE—HOUSE of Cerdic.
10350000             , 
Duke Robert of NORMANDY dies on his return from a pilgrimage to
 the Holy Land, 
his son William (afterwards the conqueror of ENGLAND)
 succeeds to THE—DUKEdom of NORMANDY.
 CHAPTER—VIII, 
-- —BATTLE—OF—HASTINGS, 
 "Eis vos la Bataille assemblee,
 Dunc encore est grant renomee."
 ROMAN DE ROU, 
3183.
 Arletta's pretty feet twinkling in the brook gained her a duke's love,
 and gave us WILLIAM—THE—CONQUEROR, 
Had she not thus fascinated Duke
 Robert, 
the Liberal, 
of NORMANDY, 
Harold would not have fallen at
no Anglo-Norman dynasty could have arisen, 
no BRITISH—EMPIRE.
[HISTORY—OF—NORMANDY and
VOLUME—I—PAGE—528] 
and it is emphatically true, 
If any one should
 write a HISTORY—OF—"Decisive loves that, 
 have materially influenced the
 drama of THE—WORLD in all its subsequent scenes," the daughter of the
 tanner of Falaise would deserve a conspicuous place in his pages, 
 it is her son, 
the victor of Hastings, 
who is now the object of our
 attention, 
 and no one, 
who appreciates the influence of ENGLAND and her
 empire upon the destinies of THE—WORLD, 
will ever rank that victory as
 one of secondary importance.
 It is true that in the last century some writers of eminence on our
 history and laws mentioned the Norman Conquest in terms, 
from which it
 might be supposed that —BATTLE—OF—Hastings led to little more than
 the substitution of one royal family for another on the throne of this
to the garbling and changing of some of our laws through
 the "cunning of the Norman lawyers." But, 
at least since the appearance
 of the work of AUGUSTIN Thierry on the Norman Conquest, 
these forensic
 fallacies have been exploded, 
Thierry made his readers keenly appreciate
 the magnitude of that political and social catastrophe, 
He depicted
 in vivid colours the atrocious cruelties of the conquerors, 
 sweeping and enduring innovations that they wrought, 
involving the
 overthrow of THE—ANCIENT constitution, 
as well as of the last of the
 Saxon kings, 
In his pages we see new tribunals and tenures superseding
 the old ones, 
whole
 districts devastated to gratify the vengeance or the caprice of the new
 tyrant, 
the greater part of the lands of THE—ENGLISH confiscated
 and divided among aliens, 
the very name of ENGLISH—MEN turned into a
 reproach, 
THE—ENGLISH language rejected as servile and barbarous, 
 all THE—HIGH places in Church and State for upwards of 100—YEARS filled
 exclusively by men of foreign race.
 No less true than eloquent is Thierry's summing up of the social effects
 of the Norman Conquest on the generation that witnessed it, 
on many
 of their successors, 
He tells his reader that "if he would form a just
 idea of ENGLAND conquered by WILLIAM—DUKE—OF—NORMANDY, 
he must figure to
 himself, 
not a mere change of political rule, 
not the triumph of one
 candidate over another candidate, 
of the man of one party over the man
 of another party, 
 but the intrusion of one people into the bosom of
 another people, 
the violent placing of one society over another society,
 which it came to destroy, 
the scattered fragments of which it
 retained only as personal property, 
or (to use the words of an old act)
 as 'the clothing of the soil:' he must not picture to himself on the one
 hand, 
a king and a despot—ON—THE, other, 
subjects of William's,
 high and low, 
rich and poor, 
all inhabiting ENGLAND, 
consequently
 all English, 
 but he must imagine two nations, 
of one of which William
 is a member and THE—CHIEF--two nations which (if the term must be used)
 were both subject to William, 
but as applied to which the word has quite
 different senses, 
in the other
 subjugated, 
He must consider that there are two countries, 
two soils,
 included —IN—THE—same geographical circumference, 
 that of the Normans
 rich and free, 
that of the Saxons poor and serving, 
vexed by RENT and
 TAILLAGE, 
 THE—FORMER—full of spacious mansions, 
walled and moated
the latter scattered over with huts and straw, 
ruined
 hovels, 
with men of THE—ARMY
 and of THE—COURT, 
with knights and nobles,--this with men of pain
 and labour, 
with farmers and artizans: on the one side, 
luxury and
 insolence, 
misery and envy--not the envy of the poor at
 the sight of opulence they cannot reach, 
but the envy of the despoiled
 when in presence of the despoilers."
 Perhaps the effect of Thierry's work has been to cast into the shade the
 ultimate good effects on ENGLAND of the Norman Conquest, 
Yet these are
 as undeniable as are the miseries which that conquest inflicted on our
 Saxon ancestors —FROM—THE—TIME—OF —BATTLE—OF—Hastings to the time of
 the signing of the Great Charter at Runnymede, 
That last is the true
 epoch of English nationality: it is the epoch when Anglo-Norman and
 ANGLO—SAXON ceased to keep aloof from each other, 
the one in haughty
 scorn, 
the other in sullen abhorrence, 
 and when all the free men of the
 land, 
 whether barons, 
yeomen, 
or burghers, 
combined to lay the
 foundations of English freedom.
 Our Norman barons were THE—CHIEFs of that primary constitutional
 movement, 
 This alone should make ENGLAND remember her obligations to the Norman
 Conquest, 
which planted far and wide, 
as a dominant class in her land,
 a martial nobility of the bravest and most energetic race that ever
 existed.
 It may sound paradoxical, 
but it is in reality no exaggeration to say,
 with Guizot, 
[Essais sur l'Histoirs de France—PAGE—273, 
et seq] 
 It is true that the Saxon institutions were the primitive cradle of
 English liberty, 
but by their own intrinsic force they could never have
 FOUNDED the enduring free English constitution, 
It was the Conquest that
 infused into them a new virtue, 
 and the political liberties of ENGLAND
 arose from the —SITUATION in which the ANGLO—SAXON and the Anglo-Norman
 populations and laws found themselves placed relatively to each other
 in this ISLAND, 
THE—STATE—OF—ENGLAND under her last ANGLO—SAXON kings
 closely resembled THE—STATE—OF—France under the last Carlovingian, 
Capetian princes, 
the great nobles were
 strong and turbulent, 
although there was more national unity
 in Saxon ENGLAND than in FRANCE, 
 although THE—ENGLISH local free
 institutions had more reality and energy than was the case with anything
 analogous to them on the Continent in the eleventh century, 
still the
 probability is that the Saxon —SYSTEM of polity, 
if left to itself, 
would
 have fallen into utter confusion, 
out of which would have arisen 1.
 an aristocratic hierarchy like that which arose in FRANCE, 
next an
 absolute monarchy, 
such
 as we now behold around, 
but not among us, 
[See Guizot, 
 I do not except even THE—ROMAN—S, 
in spite of our sympathies with
 Harold and Hereward, 
our abhorrence of the founder of the New
 Forest, 
we must confess the superiority
 of the Normans to the ANGLO—SAXONs and Anglo-Danes, 
whom they met here
 in 1066, 
as well as to the degenerate Frank noblesse and the crushed and
 servile ROMAnesque provincials, 
from whom, 
in 912, 
they had wrested the
 district in the north of Gaul which still bears the name of NORMANDY.
 It was not merely by extreme valour and ready subordination or military
that the Normans were pre-eminent among all the conquering
 races of the Gothic stock, 
but also by their instinctive faculty
 of appreciating and adopting the superior civilizations which they
 encountered, 
Thus Duke ROLLO and his Scandinavian warriors readily
 embraced the creed, 
the arts which FRANCE,
 in those troubled and evil times with which the Capetian dynasty
 commenced, 
the obedience that the
 capitularies of emperors and kings had established, 
 but that which they
 brought to the application of those laws, 
 spirit of liberty--the habits also of MILITARY subordination, 
 aptness for a state politic, 
which could reconcile the security of all
 with the independence of each, 
[Sismondi, 
HISTOIRE—DES—Francais,
 vol, 
iii—PAGE—174] 
in enthusiastic
 religious zeal, 
in a keen
 intellectual relish for subtle thought and disputation, 
in a taste for
 architectural magnificence, 
all courtly refinement and pageantry,
 the Normans were the Paladins of THE—WORLD, 
Their brilliant qualities
 were sullied by many darker traits of pride, 
of merciless cruelty, 
the rights, 
the feelings of all
 whom they considered the lower classes of mankind.
 Their gradual blending with the Saxons softened these harsh and evil
 points of their national character, 
in return they fired the duller
 Saxon mass with a new spirit of animation and power, 
As Campbell boldly
 expressed it, 
 the figure which ENGLAND made IN—THE—WORLD before the coming over of
 the Normans, 
 and without them she never would have emerged from
 insignificance, 
The authority of Gibbon may be taken as decisive when he
 pronounces that, 
writing of
 —BATTLE—OF—Hastings more than 100—YEARS ago, 
speaks of THE—REVOLUTION
 effected by it, 
as "the 1, 
step by which ENGLAND has arrived to that
 height of grandeur and glory we behold it in at present." 
[Rapin, 
Hist.
 England—PAGE—164, 
See also Sharon Turner, 
VOLUME—IV—PAGE—72, 
above all,
 The interest of this eventful struggle, 
by which WILLIAM—DUKE—OF—NORMANDY
 became —KING—OF—England, 
is materially enhanced by THE—HIGH personal
 characters of the competitors for our crown, 
One was a foreign prince from
 the South: and one was a native hero of the land, 
Harald Hardrada, 
 strongest and the most chivalric of THE—KINGS—OF—Norway, 
was the 1.; 
[See in Snerre the Saga of Harald Hardrada] 
Duke WILLIAM—DUKE—OF—NORMANDY
 was the second, 
 and the Saxon Harold, 
the son of Earl Godwin, 
was the
 third, 
Never was a nobler prize sought by nobler champions, 
or striven
 for more gallantly, 
The Saxon triumphed over the Norwegian, 
 Norman triumphed over the Saxon: but Norse valour was never more
 conspicuous than when Harald Hardrada and his host fought and fell at
 nor did Saxons ever face their foes more bravely than
 our Harold and his men on the fatal day of Hastings.
the claims
 of the Norwegian king to our Crown were little thought of, 
 and though
 Hardrada's predecessor, 
King Magnus of Norway had on one occasion
 asserted that, 
by virtue of a compact with our former king, 
Hardicanute,
 he was entitled to THE—ENGLISH throne, 
no serious attempt had been made
 to enforce his pretensions, 
But the rivalry of the Saxon Harold and
 the Norman William was foreseen and bewailed by the Confessor, 
 believed to have predicted on his death-bed the calamities that were
 pending over ENGLAND, 
Harold was
 the HEAD—OF—the most powerful noble house, 
next to THE—ROYAL—blood, 
 and personally, 
he was the bravest and most popular chieftain
 in the land, 
King Edward was childless, 
the nearest collateral heir
 was a puny unpromising boy, 
ENGLAND had suffered too severely -DURING             
 royal minorities, 
to make the accession of Edgar Atheling desirable, 
 long before King Edward's death, 
Earl Harold was the destined king of
 the nation's choice, 
though the favour of the Confessor was believed to
 lean towards the Norman duke.
 A little time before the death of King Edward, 
Harold was in NORMANDY.
 The causes of the voyage of the Saxon earl to the continent are
 doubtful, 
 but the fact of his having been, 
in 1065, 
at the ducal court,
 and in the power of his rival, 
is indisputable, 
William made skilful
 and unscrupulous use of the opportunity, 
Though Harold was treated
 with outward courtesy and friendship, 
he was made fully aware that his
 liberty and life depended on his compliance with THE—DUKE's requests.
 William said to him, 
in apparent confidence and cordiality, 
"When King
 Edward and I once lived like brothers under the same roof, 
he promised
 that if ever he became —KING—OF—England, 
he would make me heir to his
 throne, 
             —THE —YEAR should expire, 
KING—HARALD—HARDRADA, 
all the
 flower of his nobility, 
perished on the 25th of             ;;09;;, 
 Harold's victory was splendid, 
 but he had bought it dearly by the fall
 of many of his best officers and men, 
 and still more dearly by the
 opportunity which Duke William had gained of effecting an unopposed
THE—ENGLISH were to be seen fleeing
it seemed scarcely possible that the
all had their cognizances,
 "The Normans saw that THE—ENGLISH defended themselves well, 
were so
 strong in their position that they could do little against them, 
So they
 KONSULted together privily, 
arranged to draw off, 
pretend to
 flee, 
till THE—ENGLISH should pursue and scatter themselves over the
 field, 
 for they saw that if they could once get their enemies to break:
 their ranks, 
they might be attacked and discomfited much more easily, 
As
 they had said, 
so they did, 
The Normans by little and little fled, 
 English following them, 
As the one fell back, 
the other pressed after; and when THE—FRENCHmen retreated, 
THE—ENGLISH thought and cried out that
 THE—MEN—OF—FRANCE fled, 
would never return.
 "Thus they were deceived by the pretended flight, 
great mischief
 thereby befell them, 
 for if they had not moved from their position, 
it
 is not likely that they would have been conquered at all, 
 but like fools
 they broke their lines and pursued.
 "The Normans were to be seen following up their stratagem, 
retreating
 slowly so as to draw THE—ENGLISH further on, 
As they still flee, 
 English pursue, 
 they push out their lances and stretch forth their
 hatchets: following the Normans, 
as they go rejoicing —IN—THE—success of
 their scheme, 
scattering themselves over the plain, 
 meantime jeered and insulted their foes with words, 
'Cowards,' they
'you came hither in an evil hour, 
wanting our lands, 
seeking
 to seize our property, 
fools that ye were to come!  
NORMANDY is too far
 off and you will not easily reach it, 
It is of little use to run back; unless you can cross the sea at a leap, 
or can drink it dry, 
your sons
 and daughters are lost to you.
 "The Normans bore it all, 
but in fact they knew not what THE—ENGLISH
 said: their language seemed like the baying of dogs, 
which they could
 not understand, 
At length they stopped and turned round, 
determined to
 recover their ranks, 
 and the barons might be heard crying 'Dex aie!' for
 a halt, 
Then the Normans resumed their former position, 
turning their
 faces towards the enemy, 
 and their men were to be seen facing round and
 rushing onwards to a fresh MELEE, 
 the one party assaulting the other; this man striking, 
another pressing onwards, 
One hits, 
another misses; one flies, 
another pursues, 
 one is aiming a stroke, 
while another
 discharges his blow, 
Norman strives with ENGLISH—MAN AGAIN, 
aims his
 blows afresh, 
One flies, 
another pursues swiftly: the combatants are
the plain wide, 
the battle and the MELEE fierce, 
On every hand
 they fight hard, 
the blows are heavy, 
the struggle becomes fierce.
 "The Normans were playing their part well, 
when an English knight came
 rushing up, 
having in his company a hundred men, 
furnished with various
He wielded a northern hatchet, 
with the blade a full foot long; and was well armed after his manner, 
being tall, 
bold, 
of noble
 carriage, 
In the front of the battle where the Normans thronged most, 
 came bounding on swifter than the stag, 
many Normans falling before
 him and his company, 
He rushed straight upon a Norman who was armed and
 riding on a war-horse, 
tried with, 
his hatchet of steel to cleave
 his helmet, 
 but the blow miscarried and the sharp blade glanced down
 before the saddle-bow, 
driving through the horse's neck down to the
so that both horse and master fell together to the earth, 
I know
 not whether THE—ENGLISHMAN struck another blow, 
 but the Normans who saw
 the stroke were astonished and about to abandon the assault, 
when Roger
 de Mongomeri came galloping up, 
with his lance set, 
heeding not the
 long-handled axe, 
which THE—ENGLISH-man wielded aloft, 
struck him
 down, 
left him stretched upon the ground, 
Then Roger cried out,
 'Frenchmen, 
strike!  
THE—DAY is ours!' and AGAIN a fierce MELEE was to be
 seen, 
with many a blow of lance and sword, 
 THE—ENGLISH still defending
 themselves, 
killing the horses and cleaving the shields.
 "There was a French soldier of noble mien, 
who sat his horse gallantly.
 He spied two ENGLISH—MEN who were also carrying themselves boldly, 
 were both men of great worth, 
had become companions in arms and
 fought together, 
the one protecting the other, 
They bore two long and
 broad bills, 
did great mischief to the Normans, 
killing both horses
 and men, 
THE—FRENCH soldier looked at them and their bills, 
was sore
 alarmed, 
for he was afraid of losing his good horse, 
the best that he
 and would willingly have turned to some other quarter, 
if it would
 not have looked like cowardice, 
He soon, 
recovered his courage,
 and spurring his horse gave him the bridle, 
galloped swiftly
Fearing the two bills, 
he raised his shield, 
struck one of
 THE—ENGLISHMEN with his lance on the breast, 
so that the iron passed
 out at his back, 
 at the moment that he fell the lance broke, 
 Frenchmen seized the mace that hung at his right side, 
struck the
 other ENGLISH—MAN a blow that completely broke his skull.
 "On the other side was an ENGLISH—MAN who much annoyed THE—FRENCH
 continually assaulting them with a keen-edged hatchet, 
He had a helmet
 made of wood, 
which he had fastened down to his coat, 
laced round
 his neck, 
so that no blows could reach his head, 
The ravage he was
 making was seen by a gallant Norman knight, 
who rode a horse that
 neither fire nor water could stop in its career, 
when its master urged
 it on, 
The knight spurred, 
his horse carried him on well till he
 charged THE—ENGLISHMAN, 
striking him over the helmet, 
so that it fell
 down over his eyes, 
 and as he stretched out his hand to raise it and
 uncover the face, 
the Norman cut off his right hand, 
so that his hatchet
 fell to the ground, 
Another Norman sprang forward and eagerly seized the
 prize with both his hands, 
but he kept it little space, 
paid dearly
 for it, 
for as he stooped to pick up the hatchet, 
an ENGLISH—MAN with his
 long-handled axe struck him over the back, 
breaking all his bones, 
 that his entrails and lungs gushed forth, 
The knight of the good
 horse meantime returned without injury, 
 but on his way he met another
 ENGLISH—MAN, 
bore him down under his his horse, 
wounding him
 grievously, 
trampling him altogether under foot.
 "And now might be heard the loud clang and cry of battle, 
 clashing of lances, 
THE—ENGLISH stood firm in their BARRICADEs, 
 shivered the lances, 
beating them into pieces with their bills and
 maces, 
The Normans drew their swords, 
hewed down the BARRICADEs, 
 THE—ENGLISH in great trouble fell back upon their standard, 
where were
 collected the maimed and wounded.
 "There were many knights of Chauz, 
who jousted and made attacks, 
 English knew not how to joust, 
or bear arms on horseback but fought with
 hatchets and bills, 
A man when he wanted to strike with one of their
 hatchets, 
was obliged to hold it with both his hands, 
could not at
 the same time, 
as it seems to me, 
both cover himself and strike with any
 freedom.
 "THE—ENGLISH fell back towards the standard, 
which was upon a rising
the Normans followed them across the valley, 
attacking them
 on foot and horseback, 
Then Hue de Mortemer, 
with the sires D'Auviler,
 D'Onebac, 
St, 
Cler, 
rode up and charged, 
overthrowing many.
 "Robert Fitz Erneis fixed his lance, 
took his shield, 
galloping
 towards the standard, 
with his keen-edged sword struck an ENGLISH—MAN who
 was in front, 
killed him, 
then drawing back his sword, 
attacked many
pushed straight for the standard, 
trying to beat it down,
 but THE—ENGLISH surrounded it, 
killed him with their bills, 
He was
 found on the spot, 
when they afterwards sought for him, 
dead, 
lying
 at the standard's foot.
 "Duke William pressed close upon THE—ENGLISH with his lance, 
 striving
 hard to reach the —STANDARD with the great troop he led, 
 and seeking
 earnestly for Harold, 
on whose account the whole war was, 
The Normans
 follow their lord, 
press around him, 
 they ply their blows upon the
 and these defend themselves stoutly, 
striving hard with their
returning blow for blow.
 "One of them was a man of great strength, 
a wrestler, 
who did great
 mischief to the Normans with his hatchet, 
 all feared him, 
for he struck
 down a great many Normans, 
THE—DUKE spurred on his horse, 
aimed a
 blow at him, 
but he stooped, 
so escaped the stroke, 
 then jumping on
 one side, 
he lifted his hatchet aloft, 
as THE—DUKE bent to avoid
 the blow THE—ENGLISHMAN boldly struck him on the head, 
beat in his
 helmet, 
though without doing much injury, 
He was very near falling,
but bearing on his stirrups he recovered himself immediately; and when he thought to have revenged himself upon the churl by killing
he had escaped, 
dreading THE—DUKE's blow, 
He ran back in among the
but he was not safe even there, 
 for the Normans seeing him,
 pursued and caught him, 
 and having pierced him through and through with
 their lances, 
left him dead on the ground.
 "Where the throng of the battle was greatest, 
THE—MEN—OF—Kent and Essex
 fought wondrously well, 
made the Normans AGAIN retreat, 
but without
 doing them much injury, 
when THE—DUKE saw his men fall back and the
 English triumphing over them, 
his spirit rose high, 
he seized his
 shield and his lance, 
which a vassal handed to him, 
took his post by
 his standard.
 "Then those who kept close guard by him and rode where he rode, 
 about a thousand armed men, 
came and rushed with closed ranks upon the
 and with the weight of their good horses, 
the blows the
 knights gave, 
broke the press of the enemy, 
scattered the crowd
the good Duke leading them on in front, 
Many pursued and
 many fled, 
 many were THE—ENGLISHMEN who fell around, 
were trampled
 under the horses, 
crawling upon the earth, 
not able to rise, 
 of the richest and noblest men fell in that rout, 
but THE—ENGLISH still
 rallied in places, 
 smote down those whom they reached, 
maintained
 the combat the best they could, 
 beating down the men and killing the
One ENGLISH—MAN watched THE—DUKE, 
plotted to kill him, 
 he
 would have struck him with his lance, 
but he could not, 
for THE—DUKE
 struck him 1., 
felled him to the earth.
 "Loud was now the clamour, 
great the slaughter, 
 many a soul then
 quitted the body it inhabited, 
The living marched over the heaps of
 dead, 
each side was weary of striking, 
He charged on who could, 
 he who could no longer strike still pushed forward, 
The strong struggled
 with the strong, 
 some failed, 
others triumphed, 
 the cowards fell back,
 the brave pressed on, 
 and sad was his fate who fell in the midst, 
 he had little chance of rising AGAIN, 
 and many in truth fell, 
who never
 rose at all, 
being crushed under the throng.
 "And now the Normans pressed on so far, 
that at last they had reached
 the standard, 
There Harold had remained, 
defending himself to the
 utmost, 
 but he was sorely wounded in his eye by the arrow, 
suffered
 grievous pain from the blow, 
An armed man came in the throng of the
struck him on the ventaille of his helmet, 
beat him to
 the ground, 
 and as he sought to recover himself, 
a knight beat him down
 AGAIN, 
striking him on the thick of his thigh, 
down to the bone.
 "Gurth saw THE—ENGLISH falling around, 
that there was no remedy, 
 saw his race hastening to ruin, 
despaired of any aid, 
 he would have
 fled but could not, 
for the throng continually increased and THE—DUKE
 pushed on till he reached him, 
struck him with great force, 
Whether
 he died of that blow I know not, 
but it was said that he fell under it,
 and rose no more.
 "The —STANDARD was beaten down, 
the golden —STANDARD was taken, 
 and the best of his friends were slain, 
 but there was so much eagerness,
 and throng of so many around, 
seeking to kill him, 
that I know not who
 it was that slew him.
 "THE—ENGLISH were in great trouble at having lost their king, 
 THE—DUKE's having conquered and beat down the standard, 
 but they still
 fought on, 
defended themselves long, 
in fact till THE—DAY drew
 to a close, 
Then it clearly appeared to all that the —STANDARD was lost,
 and THE—NEWS had spread —THROUGHOUT THE—ARMY that Harold for certain was
 and all saw that there was no longer any hope, 
so they left the
those fled who could.
 "William fought well, 
 many an assault did he lead, 
many a blow did he
 give, 
many receive, 
many fell dead under his hand, 
Two horses
 were killed under him, 
he took a third at time of need, 
so that he
 fell not to the ground, 
 and he lost not a drop of blood, 
But whatever
 any one did, 
whoever lived or died, 
this is certain, 
that William
 conquered, 
that many of THE—ENGLISH fled from the field, 
 died on the spot, 
Then he returned thanks to God, 
in his pride
 ordered his —STANDARD to be brought and set up on high where THE—ENGLISH
 —STANDARD had stood, 
 and that was the signal of his having conquered and
 beaten down the foe, 
he ordered his tent to be raised on the
 spot among the dead, 
had his meat brought thither, 
his supper
 prepared there.
 "Then he took off his armour, 
 and the barons and knights, 
pages and
 squires came, 
when he had unstrung his shield: and they took the helmet
 from his head, 
the hauberk from his back, 
saw the heavy blows
how his helmet was dinted in, 
all greatly
 wondered, 
'Such a baron never bestrode war-horse, 
or dealt
 such blows, 
or did such feats of arms, 
 neither has there been on earth
 such a knight since Rollant and Olivier.'
 "Thus they lauded and extolled him greatly, 
rejoiced in what they
 saw, 
 but grieving also for their friends who were slain in the battle.
 And THE—DUKE stood meanwhile among them of noble stature and mien, 
 rendered thanks to THE—KING—OF—Glory, 
through whom he had THE—VICTORY; and thanked the knights around him, 
mourning also frequently for the
he ate and drank among the dead, 
made his bed that night
 upon the field.
 "The morrow was Sunday, 
 and those who had slept upon the field of
keeping watch around, 
suffering great fatigue, 
bestirred
 themselves at break of day and sought out and buried such of the bodies
 of their dead friends as they might find, 
The noble ladies of the land
 also came, 
some to seek their husbands, 
others their fathers, 
sons,
 or brothers, 
They bore the bodies to their villages, 
interred them
 at THE—CHURCHes, 
 and the clerks and priests of THE—COUNTRY were ready,
 and at the request of their friends, 
took the bodies that were found,
 and prepared graves and laid them therein.
 "King Harold was carried and buried at Varham, 
 but I know not who it was
 that bore him thither, 
neither do I know who buried him, 
Many remained
 on the field, 
many had fled in the night."
 Such is a Norman acCOUNT—OF—THE—BATTLE—OF—Hastings, 
which does full
 justice to the valour of the Saxons, 
as well as to the skill and bravery
 of the victors, 
[In the preceding pages, 
I have woven together the
 "purpureos pannos" of the old chronicler, 
In so doing, 
I have largely
 availed myself of Mister Edgar Taylor's version of that part of the "ROMAn
 de Rou" which describes the conquest, 
By giving engravings from the
 Bayeux Tapestry, 
excellent notes, 
Mister Taylor has added much to the
 value and interest of his volume] 
It is indeed evident that the loss of
 the battle to THE—ENGLISH was owing to the wound which Harold received
 in the afternoon, 
which must have incapacitated him from effective
When we remember that he had himself just won the —BATTLE—OF
 STAMFORD Bridge over Harald Hardrada by the manoeuvre of a feigned
 flight, 
it is impossible to suppose that he could be deceived by the
 same stratagem on the part of the Normans at Hastings, 
But his men,
 when deprived of his control would very naturally be led by their
 inconsiderate ardour into the pursuit that proved so fatal to them.
 All the narratives of the battle, 
however much they may vary as to the
 precise time and manner of Harold's fall, 
eulogise the generalship and
 the personal prowess which he displayed, 
until the fatal arrow struck
The skill with which he had posted his army was proved, 
both by the
 slaughter which it cost the Normans to force the position, 
also by
 the desperate rally which some of the Saxons made, 
after the battle,
 in the forest in the rear, 
in which they cut off a large number of the
 pursuing Normans, 
This circumstance is particularly mentioned by William
 of Poictiers, 
the Conqueror's own chaplain, 
if Harold, 
or either
 of his brothers, 
had survived, 
the remains of THE—ENGLISH army might
 have formed AGAIN in the wood, 
could at least have effected an
 orderly retreat, 
prolonged THE—WAR, 
But both Gurth and Leofwine, 
 all the bravest thanes of Southern ENGLAND, 
lay dead on Senlac, 
around
 their fallen king and the fallen —STANDARD of their country, 
The exact
 number of the slain on the Saxon side is unknown, 
 but we read that on
 the side of the victors, 
out of sixty thousand men who had been engaged,
 no less than a fourth perished: so well had THE—ENGLISH bill-men "plied
 the ghastly blow" and so sternly had the Saxon battle-axe cloven Norman
 casque and mail, 
[The Conqueror's chaplain calls the Saxon battle-axes
 "saevissimas secures."] 
The old historian Daniel justly as well as
 forcibly remarks, 
[As cited in the "Pictorial History."] 
"Thus was
 tried, 
by the great assize of God's judgment in battle, 
the right
 of power between THE—ENGLISH and Norman nations, 
 a battle the most
 memorable of all others, 
however miserably lost, 
yet most nobly
 fought on the part of ENGLAND."
 Many a pathetic legend was told in after years respecting the
 discovery and the burial of the corpse of our last Saxon king, 
The main
 circumstances, 
though they seem to vary, 
are perhaps reconcilable, 
[See them collected in Lingard—VOLUME—i p, 452, ET SEQ., Thierry, VOLUME—i. p, 299, 
 Sharon Turner, VOLUME—I—PAGE—82, and 
 HISTOIRE—DE—Normandie par Lieguet—PAGE—242]
 Two of the monks of Waltham abbey, 
which Harold had FOUNDED a little time before his —ELECTION to the throne, 
had accompanied him to the battle, 
ON THE MORNING AFTER THE SLAUGHTER they begged and gained permission of the Conqueror to search for the body of their benefactor, 
The Norman soldiery and camp-followers had stripped and gashed the slain, and
 the two monks vainly strove to recognise from among the mutilated and gory heaps around them the features of their former king, 
They sent for Harold's mistress, Edith, surnamed "the Fair" and the "Swan-necked," to aid them, 
The eye of love proved keener than the eye of gratitude, and , 
the Saxon lady, even in that Aceldama, knew her Harold.
 The KING his mother now sought the victorious Norman, and , 
begged the dead body of her son, But 
William at 1, answered in his wrath, and , 
in the hardness of his heart, that 
a man who had been false to his word and his RELIGION should have no other sepulchre than the sand of the shore, 
He added, with a sneer, 
"Harold mounted guard on the coast while he was alive, 
 he may continue his guard now he is dead."
 The taunt was an unintentional eulogy, and 
 a grave washed by the spray of the SUSSEX waves would have been THE—NOBLESt burial-place for the MARTYR—OF—Saxon freedom, But 
 Harold's mother was urgent in her lamentations and her prayers: 
 the Conqueror relented: 
 like Achilles, he gave up the dead body of his fallen foe to a parent's supplications, and
 the remains of King Harold were deposited with regal honours in Waltham Abbey.
   00001223             —CHRISTMAS—DAY—ON, OF THE—SAME—YEAR, WILLIAM—THE—CONQUEROR was crowned at LONDON, WILLIAM—I—KING—OF—ENGLAND.
1429.JOAN OF ARC'S VICTORY—AT—ORLEANS, 
10660000—10870000    Reign of WILLIAM—THE—CONQUEROR, 
Frequent risings of THE—ENGLISH against him, 
which are quelled with merciless rigour.
10960000             , 
Crusade.
11120000             , 
Commencement of the disputes about investitures between the
 emperors and the PAPAs.
11400000             , 
Foundation of THE—CITY—OF—Lubeck, 
whence originated the Hanseatic
 League, 
Commencement of the feuds in ITALY between the Guelphs and
 Ghibellines.
11460000             , 
The second Crusade.
11540000             , 
HENRY—II, 
becomes —KING—OF—England, 
Under him THOMAS a Becket is
 made Archbishop of Canterbury: the 1, 
instance of any man of the
 Saxon race being raised to high office in Church or State since the
 Conquest.
11700000             , 
Strongbow, 
earl of Pembroke, 
lands with an English army in
 IRELAND.
11890000             , 
RICHARD—COEUR—DE—LION[RICHARD—LÖWENHERZ] 
He and KING—PHILIP
 AUGUSTUS of FRANCE join in the third Crusade.
11990000—12040000    , 
On the death of King Richard, 
his brother John claims
 and makes himself master of ENGLAND and NORMANDY and the other large
 continental possessions of the —EARLY, Plantagenet princes, 
PHILIP
 AUGUSTUS asserts the cause of Prince Arthur, 
John's nephew, 
against him.
 Arthur is murdered, 
but THE—FRENCH—KING continues THE—WAR—AGAINST—John,
 and conquers from him NORMANDY, 
Brittany, 
ANJOU, 
Maine, 
Touraine, 
 Poictiers.
12160000             
The barons, 
the freeholders, 
the citizens, 
the yeomen of
 ENGLAND rise against the tyranny of John and his foreign favourites.
 They compel him to sign Magna Charta, 
This is the commencement of our
 nationality: for our history from this time forth is the HISTORY—OF—a
 national life, 
then complete, 
still in being, 
All English history
 before this period is a mere HISTORY—OF—elements, 
of their collisions,
 and of the processes of their fusion, 
For upwards of 100—YEARS after the
Anglo-Norman and ANGLO—SAXON had kept aloof from each other:
 the one in haughty scorn, 
They were two
 peoples, 
though living —IN—THE—same land, 
It is not until the thirteenth
 century, 
the PERIOD—OF—the reigns of John and his son and grandson, 
 we can perceive the existence of any feeling of common patriotism among
But in studying the HISTORY—OF—these reigns, 
we read of the old
 dissensions no longer, 
The Saxon no more appears in CIVIL—WAR against
 the Norman, 
 the Norman no longer scorns the language of the Saxon, 
 refuses to bear together with him the name of ENGLISH—MAN, 
No part of the
 community think themselves foreigners to another part, 
They feel that
 they are all one people, 
they have learned to unite their efforts
 for the common purpose of protecting the rights and promoting the
 welfare of all, 
The fortunate loss of THE—DUCHY—OF—NORMANDY in John's
 reign greatly promoted these new feelings, 
Thenceforth our barons' only
 homes were in ENGLAND, 
One language had, 
IN—THE—REIGN—OF—HENRY—III.,
 become the language of the land, 
 and that, 
had then assumed the
 form in which we still possess it, 
One law, 
in the eye of which all
 freemen are equal without distinction of race, 
was modelled, 
 steadily enforced, 
still continues to form the groundwork of our
 judicial system, 
[Creasy's Text-book of THE—CONSTITUTION—PAGE—4]
12730000             , 
Rudolph of Hapsburg chosen EMPEROR—OF—GERMANY.
12830000             , 
Edward I, 
conquers Wales.
13460000             , 
Edward III, 
invades FRANCE, 
gains —BATTLE—OF—Cressy.
13560000             , 
BATTLE—OF—Poictiers.
13600000             , 
TREATY—OF—Bretigny between ENGLAND and FRANCE, 
By it Edward III.
 renounces his pretensions to THE—FRENCH crown, 
THE—TREATY is ill kept,
 and indecisive hostilities continue between the forces of the two
 countries.
14140000             , 
HENRY—V, 
of ENGLAND claims the crown of FRANCE, 
resolves to
 invade and conquer that kingdom, 
At this time FRANCE was in the most
 deplorable state of weakness and suffering, 
from the factions that
 raged among her nobility, 
from the cruel oppressions which the
 rival nobles practised on the mass of the community, 
"THE—PEOPLE were
 exhausted by taxes, 
military executions, 
 and they had
 fallen into that worst of all states of mind, 
when the independence of
 one's country is thought no longer a paramount and sacred object, 
'What
 can THE—ENGLISH do to us worse than the things we suffer at the hands
 of our own princes?' was a common exclamation among the poor people of
 FRANCE." 
[Pictorial Hist, 
of ENGLAND, 
VOLUME—I—PAGE—28]
14150000             , 
HENRY—Invades FRANCE, 
takes Harfleur, 
wins the great —BATTLE—OF
 Agincourt.
14170000             —1419, 
HENRY conquers NORMANDY, 
THE—FRENCH Dauphin assassinates the
 DUKE—OF—Burgundy, 
the most powerful of THE—FRENCH nobles, 
at MONTEREAU.
The successor of the murdered duke becomes the active ally of THE—ENGLISH.
14200000             THE—TREATY—OF—TROYES is concluded between HENRY—V. —KING—OF—England and CHARLES—VI, of FRANCE, and , PHILIP, DUKE—OF—Burgundy, 
By this TREATY—OF—TROYES it was stipulated that 
HENRY should marry the Princess Catherine of FRANCE; that 
King CHARLES,
             —DURING his life-time, should keep the title and dignity of —KING—OF—France, but that
 HENRY should succeed him, and , 
should at once be entrusted with the administration of THE—GOVERNMENTt, and that 
THE—FRENCH crown should descend to HENRY's heirs, that 
FRANCE and ENGLAND should for ever be united under one king, but 
FRANCE and ENGLAND should still retain their several usages, 
customs, and , 
privileges, that 
all the princes, 
peers, 
vassals, and , 
communities of FRANCE should swear allegiance to HENRY as their future king, and , 
should pay him present obedience as regent,that 
HENRY should unite his arms to those of King CHARLES and THE—DUKE—OF—Burgundy, 
in order to subdue the adherents of CHARLES, the pretended dauphin, and that 
these 3 princes should make no truce or PEACE—WITH—the Dauphin, but 
by the common consent of all 3.
14210000             , 
gains several victories over THE—FRENCH 
who refuse to
 acknowledge THE—TREATY—OF—TROYES, 
His son, 
afterwards HENRY—VI., 
 born.
14220000             , 
CHARLES—VI, 
of FRANCE die, 
HENRY—VI, 
is proclaimed at
 PARIS, 
—KING—OF—England and FRANCE, 
The followers of THE—FRENCH Dauphin
 proclaim him CHARLES—VII., 
—KING—OF—France, 
THE—DUKE—OF—BEDFORD, 
 English Regent in FRANCE, 
defeats THE—ARMY of the Dauphin at Crevant.
14240000             , 
THE—DUKE—OF—BEDFORD gains the great VICTORY—OF—Verneuil over the
 French partizans of the Dauphin, 
their Scotch auxiliaries.
14280000             , 
THE—ENGLISH begin —SIEGE—OF—Orleans.
 CHAPTER—IX, 
-- JOAN—OF—ARC'S VICTORY OVER THE—ENGLISH AT ORLEANS, 
A.D.
14290000             .
 "The eyes of all Europe were turned towards this scene, 
 was reasonably supposed, 
THE—FRENCH were to make their last stand
 for maintaining the independence of their monarchy and the rights
 of their, 
 sovereign"--HUME.
 When, 
after their VICTORY—AT—Salamis, 
the generals of the various
 Greek states voted the prizes for distinguished individual merit,
 each assigned the 1, 
place of excellence to himself, 
but they all
 concurred in giving their second votes to Themistocles, 
[Plutarch, 
Vit.
 Them, 
17] 
This was looked on as a decisive proof that Themistocles
 ought to be ranked 1, 
of all, 
If we were to endeavour, 
by a similar
 test, 
to ascertain which European nation has contributed the most to
 the progress of European civilization, 
we should find ITALY, 
GERMANY,
each claiming the 1, 
degree, 
but each also naming
 FRANCE as clearly next in merit, 
It is impossible to deny her paramount
 importance —IN—HISTORY, 
Besides the formidable part that she has
 for nearly 3 centuries played, 
as the Bellona of THE—EUropean
 commonwealth of states, 
her influence
             —DURING all this period over the
 arts, 
the manners and the feelings of mankind, 
has been
 such as to make the crisis of her earlier fortunes a point of world-wide
 interest, 
 and it may be asserted without exaggeration, 
that THE—FUTURE
 career of every nation was involved in the result of the struggle
 by which the unconscious heroine of FRANCE, 
in—THE—BEGINNING—OF the
 fifteenth century, 
rescued her country from becoming a second IRELAND
 under the yoke of the triumphant English.
 Seldom has the extinction of a a nation's independence appeared more
 inevitable than was the case in FRANCE, 
when THE—ENGLISH invaders
 completed their lines round Orleans, 
four hundred and twenty-3—YEARS
 ago, 
A series of dreadful defeats had thinned the chivalry of FRANCE,
 and daunted the spirits of her soldiers, 
A foreign King had been
 proclaimed in her capital, 
 and foreign armies of the bravest veterans,
 and led by the ablest captains then known IN—THE—WORLD, 
occupied the
 fairest portions of her territory, 
Worse to her even than the fierceness
 and the strength of her foes were the factions, 
the vices, 
 crimes of her own children, 
Her native prince was a dissolute trifler,
 stained with the ASSASSINATION—OF—the most powerful noble of the land,
 whose son, 
in revenge, 
had leagued himself with the enemy, 
Many more
 of her nobility, 
many of her prelates, 
her magistrates, 
rulers, 
 sworn fealty to THE—ENGLISH king, 
The condition of the peasantry amid
 the general prevalence of anarchy and brigandage, 
which were added to
 the customary devastations of contending armies, 
was wretched beyond the
 power of language to describe, 
The sense of terror and suffering seemed
 to have extended itself even to the brute creation.
 "In sooth, 
the estate of FRANCE was then most miserable, 
There
 appeared nothing but a horrible face, 
confusion, 
POVERTY, 
desolation,
 solitarinesse, 
feare, 
The lean and bare labourers in THE—COUNTRY did
 terrifie even theeves themselves, 
who had nothing left them to spoile
 but the carkasses of these poore miserable creatures, 
wandering up
 and down like ghostes drawne out of their graves, 
The least farmes and
 hamlets were fortified by these robbers, 
English, 
Bourguegnons, 
every one striving to do his worst, 
 all men-of-war were
 well agreed to spoile THE—COUNTRYman and merchant, 
EVEN THE CATTELL,
 ACCUSTOMED TO THE LARUME BELL, 
THE SIGNE OF THE ENEMY'S APPROACH, 
WOULD
 RUN HOME OF THEMSELVES WITHOUT ANY GUIDE BY THIS ACCUSTOMED MISERY." 
[De
 Serres, 
quoted in the notes to Southey's JOAN—OF—ARC]
—HERBST—IM 1428, 
THE—ENGLISH, 
who were ALREADY masters of all
 FRANCE north of the LOIRE, 
prepared their forces for the conquest of the
which yet adhered to the cause of the Dauphin, 
 CITY—OF—Orleans, 
on THE—BANKs of that river, 
was looked upon as the
 last stronghold of THE—FRENCH national party, 
If THE—ENGLISH could once
 obtain possession of it, 
their victorious progress through the residue
 of the kingdom seemed free from any serious obstacle, 
Accordingly,
 the Earl of SALISBURY, 
one of the bravest and most experienced of the
 English generals, 
who had been trained under HENRY—V., 
marched to the
 attack of the all-important city, 
after reducing several places of
 inferior consequence in the neighbourhood, 
appeared with his army before
 its walls on the 12th of ;;10;;, 
1428.
 THE—CITY—OF—Orleans itself was on the north side of the LOIRE, 
but its
 suburbs extended far on the southern side, 
a strong bridge connected
 them with THE—TOWN, 
A fortification which in modern MILITARY phrase
 would be termed a tete-du-pont, 
defended the bridge-head on the southern
two towers, 
called the Tourelles, 
were built on the bridge
 itself, 
where it rested on an ISLAND at a little distance from the
 tete-du-pont, 
the solid masonry of the bridge terminated at the
 Tourelles, 
 and the communication thence with the tete-du-pont on the
 southern shore was by means of a drawbridge, 
The Tourelles and the
 tete-du-pont formed together a strong fortified post, 
capable of
 containing a garrison of considerable strength, 
 and so long as this was
 in possession of the Orleannais, 
they could communicate freely with
 the southern provinces, 
THE—INHABITANTS—OF—which, 
like the Orleannais
supported the cause of their Dauphin against the foreigners.
 Lord SALISBURY rightly judged the capture of the Tourelles to be the
 most material step towards the reduction of THE—CITY itself, 
Accordingly
 he directed his principal operations against this post, 
 some severe repulses, 
he carried the Tourelles by storm, 
on the 23d of
 ;;10;;, 
THE—FRENCH 
broke down the part of the bridge which
 was nearest to the north bank and thus rendered a direct assault from
 the Tourelles upon THE—CITY impossible, 
But THE—POSSESSION—OF—this post
 enabled THE—ENGLISH to distress THE—TOWN greatly by a battery of cannon
 which they planted there, 
which commanded some of the principal
 streets.
 It has been observed by Hume, 
that this is the 1, 
siege in which
 any important use appears to have been made of artillery, 
even at
 Orleans both besiegers and besieged seem to have employed their cannons
 more as instruments of destruction against their enemy's men, 
than
 as engines of demolition against their enemy's walls and works, 
 efficacy of cannon in breaching solid masonry was taught Europe by
 THE—TURKS, 
a few years after wards, 
at the memorable siege of
 Constantinople, 
In our French wars, 
as IN—THE—WARs of the classic
famine was looked on as the surest weapon to compel the
 submission of a well-walled town and the great object of the besiegers
 was to effect a complete circumvallation, 
The great ambit of the walls
 of Orleans, 
the facilities which the river gave for obtaining
 succour and supplies, 
rendered the capture of the place by this process
 a matter of great difficulty, 
Nevertheless, 
Lord SALISBURY, 
Lord
 Suffolk, 
who succeeded him in command of THE—ENGLISH after his death
 by a cannon-ball, 
carried on the necessary works with great skill and
 resolution, 
6 strongly fortified posts, 
called bastillos, 
were formed
 at certain intervals round THE—TOWN and the purpose of THE—ENGLISH
 engineers was to draw strong lines between them, 
             —DURING—the winter
 little progress was made with the entrenchments, 
but when the spring
 of 1429 came, 
THE—ENGLISH resumed their works with activity, 
 communications between THE—CITY and THE—COUNTRY became more difficult,
 and the approach of want began ALREADY to be felt in Orleans.
 The besieging force also fared hardly for stores and provisions, 
until
 relieved by the effects of a brilliant victory which Sir John Fastolfe,
 one of the best English generals, 
gained at Rouvrai, 
near Orleans, 
a few
 days after Ash —WEDNESDAY, 
14290000             ,
With only sixteen hundred fighting men,
 Sir John completely defeated an army of French and Scots, 
four
 thousand strong, 
which had been collected for the purpose of aiding the
 Orleannais, 
harassing the besiegers, 
After this encounter, 
 seemed decisively to confirm the superiority of THE—ENGLISH in battle
 over their adversaries, 
Fastolfe escorted large supplies of stores
 and food to Suffolk's camp, 
the spirits of THE—ENGLISH rose to the
 highest pitch at the prospect of the speedy capture of THE—CITY before
the consequent subjection of all FRANCE beneath their arms.
 The Orleannais now in their distress offered to surrender THE—CITY into
 the hands of THE—DUKE—OF—Burgundy, 
though the ally of THE—ENGLISH,
 was yet one of their native princes, 
THE—REGENT BEDFORD refused these
 terms, 
the speedy submission of THE—CITY to THE—ENGLISH seemed
 inevitable, 
The Dauphin CHARLES, 
who was now at CHINON with his remnant
 of a court, 
despaired of maintaining any longer the struggle for his
 crown, 
 and was only prevented from abandoning THE—COUNTRY by the more
 masculine spirits of his mistress and his queen, 
Yet neither they, 
nor
 the boldest of CHARLES's captains, 
could have shown him where to find
 resources for prolonging THE—WAR, 
 and least of all could any human skill
 have predicted the quarter whence rescue was to come to Orleans and to
 FRANCE.
 IN—THE—VILLAGE—OF—Domremy, 
on the borders of LORRAINE, 
there was a poor
 peasant of the name of Jacques d'Arc, 
respected in his station of life,
 and who had reared a family in virtuous habits and in the practice of
 the strictest devotion, 
His eldest daughter was named by her parents
 Jeannette, 
but she was called Jeanne by THE—FRENCH 
which was Latinised
 into JOHANNA, 
anglicised into Joan, 
["Respondit quod in partibus
 suis vocabatur JOHANNeta, 
et POSTQUAM venit in Franciam vocata est
 JOHANNA."--PROCES DE JEANNE—DE—ARC, 
VOLUME—i—PAGE—46]
 —AT—THE—TIME—WHEN Joan 1, 
attracted attention, 
she was about eighteen
 years of age, 
She was naturally of a susceptible disposition, 
 diligent attention to the legends of saints, 
tales of fairies, 
aided
 by the dreamy loneliness of her life while tending her father's flocks,
 had made peculiarly prone to enthusiastic fervour, 
—TIME—AT—THE—SAME
 she was eminent for piety and purity of soul, 
for her compassionate
 gentleness to the sick and the distressed.
[Southey, 
in one of the speeches which he puts in the mouth of his Joan
 of Arc, 
has made her beautifully describe the effect, 
 on her mind of the
 scenery in which she dwelt:--
 "Here in solitude and peace
 My soul was nurst, 
amid the loveliest scenes
 Of-unpolluted nature, 
 Sweet it was,
 As the white mists of morning roll'd away,
 To see the mountain's wooded heights appear
 Dark in the —EARLY, dawn, 
MARK its slope
 With gorse-flowers glowing, 
as the rising sun
 On the golden ripeness pour'd a deepening light.
 Pleasant —AT—NOON beside the vocal brook
 To lay me down, 
watch the the floating clouds,
 And shape to Fancy's wild similitudes
 Their ever-varying forms, 
 and oh, 
how sweet,
 To drive my flock at evening to the fold,
 And hasten to our little hut, 
hear
 The voice of kindness bid me welcome home!"
 The only foundation for the story told by THE—BURGundian partisan
 Monstrelet, 
adopted by Hume, 
of Joan having been brought up as
 servant at an inn, 
is the circumstance of her having been once, 
 rest of her family, 
obliged to take refuge in an AUBERGE in Neufchateau
 for fifteen days, 
when a party of Burgundian cavalry made an incursion
 into Domremy, 
(See the Quarterly Review, 
No, 
138.)]
 The district where she dwelt had escaped comparatively free from the
 ravages of war, 
but the approach of roving bands of Burgundian or
 English troops frequently spread terror through Domremy, 
Once the
 village had been plundered by some of these marauders, 
Joan and her
 family had been driven from their home, 
forced to seek refuge for a
 time at Neufchateau, 
The peasantry in Domremy were principally attached
 to THE—HOUSE of Orleans and the Dauphin, 
 and all the miseries which
 FRANCE endured, 
were there imputed to THE—BURGundian faction and their
who were seeking to enslave unhappy FRANCE.
 Thus from infancy to girlhood Joan had heard continually of the woes of
she had herself witnessed some of the wretchedness that it
 caused, 
A feeling of intense patriotism grew in her with her growth, 
 deliverance of FRANCE from THE—ENGLISH was THE—SUBJECT—OF—her reveries
 by day and her dreams by night, 
Blended with these aspirations were
 recollections of the miraculous interpositions of Heaven in favour of
 the oppressed, 
which she had learned from the legends of her Church, 
Her
 faith was undoubting, 
 her prayers were fervent, 
"She feared no danger,
 for she felt no sin, 
" and at length she believed herself to have
 received the supernatural inspiration which, 
she sought.
 ACCORDING—TO—her own narrative, 
delivered by her to her merciless
 inquisitors in the time of her captivity and approaching death, 
she was
 about thirteen YEARS—OLD when her revelations commenced, 
Her own words
 describe them best: 
[Proces de JEANNE—DE—ARC, 
VOLUME—I—PAGE—52] 
"At the
 age of thirteen, 
a voice from God came near to her to help her in ruling
 herself, 
that voice came to her about the hour of noon, 
in summer
 time, 
while she was in her father's garden, 
she had fasted THE—DAY
she heard the voice on her right, 
in the direction of
 THE—CHURCH, 
 and when she heard the voice she also saw a bright light.
 Afterwards, 
Michael and St, 
MARGARET and St, 
Catherine appeared to
 her, 
They were always in a halo of glory, 
 she could see that their heads
 were crowned with jewels: and she heard their voices, 
which were sweet
 and mild, 
She did not distinguish their arms or limbs, 
She heard them
 more frequently than she saw them, 
 and THE—USual time when she heard
 them was when THE—CHURCH bells were sounding for prayer, 
if she was
 in the woods when she heard them, 
she could plainly distinguish their
 voices drawing near to her, 
When she thought that she discerned the
 Heavenly Voices, 
she knelt down, 
bowed herself to the ground, 
 presence gladdened her even to tears, 
 and after they departed she wept
 because they had not taken her with them back to Paradise, 
They always
 spoke soothingly to her, 
They told her that FRANCE would be saved, 
 that she was to save it." Such were the visions and the Voices that
 moved the spirit of the girl of thirteen, 
 and as she grew older they
 became more frequent and more clear, 
At last the tidings of the siege of
 Orleans reached Domremy, 
Joan heard her parents and neighbours talk of
 the sufferings of its population, 
of the ruin which its capture would
 bring on their lawful sovereign, 
of the distress of the Dauphin and
 his court, 
Joan's heart was sorely troubled at the thought of the fate
 and her Voices now ordered her to leave her home, 
 and warned
 her that she was the instrument chosen by Heaven for driving away the
 English from that city, 
for taking the Dauphin to be anointed king
 at Rheims, 
At length she informed her parents of her divine mission, 
 told them that she must go to the Sire de Baudricourt, 
who commanded
 at Vaucouleurs, 
who was the appointed person to bring her into the
 presence of the king, 
whom she was to save, 
Neither the anger nor the
 grief of her parents, 
who said that they would rather see her drowned
 than exposed to the contamination of the camp, 
could move her from her
 purpose, 
One of her uncles consented to take her to Vaucouleurs, 
 De Baudricourt at 1, 
thought her mad, 
derided her, 
 but by
 degrees was led to believe, 
if not in her inspiration, 
at least in her
 enthusiasm and in its possible utility to the Dauphin's cause.
 THE—INHABITANTS—OF—Vaucouleurs were completely won over to her side, 
 the piety and devoutness which she displayed and by her firm assurance
 IN—THE—TRUTH of her mission, 
She told them that it was God's will
 that she should go to the King, 
that no one but her could save the
 KINGDOM—of—FRANCE, 
She said that she herself would rather remain with
 her poor mother and spin, 
 but the Lord had ordered her forth, 
The fame
 of "The Maid," as she was termed, 
the renown of her holiness, 
 her mission, 
spread far and wide, 
Baudricourt sent her with an escort to
 CHINON, 
where the Dauphin CHARLES was dallying away his time, 
Her Voices
 had bidden her assume the arms and the apparel of a knight, 
 wealthiest inhabitants of Vaucouleurs had vied with each other in
 equipping her with warhorse, 
armour, 
sword, 
On reaching CHINON,
 she was, 
after some delay, 
admitted into the presence of the Dauphin.
 CHARLES designedly dressed himself far less richly than many of
 his courtiers were apparelled, 
mingled with them, 
when Jean
 was introduced, 
in order to see if the Holy Maid would address her
 exhortations to the wrong person, 
But she instantly singled him out,
 and kneeling before him, 
"Most nobLE—DAUPHIN, 
THE—KING—OF—Heaven
 announces to you by me, 
that you shall be anointed and crowned king in
 THE—CITY—OF—Rheims, 
that you shall be His viceregent in FRANCE." His
 features may probably have been seen by her previously in portraits, 
 have been described to her by others, 
 but she herself believed that
 her Voices inspired her when she addressed the King, 
[Proces de Jeanne
 d'Arc, 
VOLUME—I—PAGE—56] 
and THE—REPORT soon spread abroad that the Holy
 Maid had found the King by a miracle, 
 and this, 
with many other similar
 rumours, 
augmented the renown and influence that she now rapidly
 acquired.
 THE—STATE—OF—public feeling in FRANCE was not favourable to an
 enthusiastic belief in Divine interposition in favour of the party that
 had hitherto been unsuccessful and oppressed, 
The humiliations which had
 befallen THE—FRENCH royal family and nobility were looked on as the just
 judgments of God upon them for their vice and impiety, 
The misfortunes
 that had come upon FRANCE as a nation, 
were believed to have been drawn
 down by national sins, 
who had been the instruments of
 Heaven's wrath against FRANCE, 
seemed now by their pride and cruelty to
 be fitting objects of it themselves, 
FRANCE in that age was a profoundly
 religious country, 
There was ignorance, 
there was superstition there was
 bigotry, 
 but there was Faith--a Faith that itself worked true miracles,
 even while it believed in unreal ones, 
At this time, 
one of those
 devotional movements began among THE—CLERGY in FRANCE, 
which from time
 to time occur in national Churches, 
without it being possible for the
 historian to assign any adequate human cause for their immediate date or
 extension, 
Numberless friars and priests traversed the rural districts
 and towns of FRANCE, 
preaching to THE—PEOPLE that they must seek
 from Heaven a deliverance from the pillages of the soldiery, 
 insolence of the foreign oppressors, 
[See, 
Sismondi vol, 
xiii—PAGE—114; Michelet—VOLUME—v, 
Livre x] 
The idea of a Providence that works only
 by general laws was wholly alien to the feelings of THE—AGE, 
Every
 political event, 
as well as every natural phenomenon, 
was believed to be
 the immediate result of a special mandate of God, 
This led to the belief
 that His holy angels and saints were constantly employed in executing
 His commands and mingling in the affairs of men, 
THE—CHURCH encouraged
 these feelings, 
 and —TIME—AT—THE—SAME sanctioned, 
 the concurrent popular
 belief that hosts of evil spirits were also ever actively interposing
 in the current of earthly events, 
with whom sorcerers and wizards could
 league themselves, 
thereby obtain the exercise of supernatural
 power.
 Thus all things favoured the influence which Joan obtained both over
 friends and foes, 
THE—FRENCH nation, 
as well as THE—ENGLISH and the
 Burgundians, 
readily admitted that superhuman beings inspired her:
 the only question was, 
whether these beings were good or evil angels; whether she brought with her "airs from heaven, 
or blasts from hell."
 This question seemed to her countrymen to be decisively settled in her
 favour, 
by the austere sanctity of her life, 
by the holiness of her
 conversation, 
but, 
still more, 
by her exemplary attention to all the
 services and rites of THE—CHURCH, 
The dauphin at 1, 
feared the injury
 that might be done to his cause if he had laid himself open to the
 charge of having leagued himself with a sorceress, 
Every imaginable
was resorted to in order to set Joan's orthodoxy and
 purity beyond suspicion, 
At last CHARLES and his advisers felt safe in
 accepting her services as those of a true and virtuous daughter of the
 Holy Church.
 It is indeed probable that CHARLES himself, 
some of his counsellors,
 may have suspected Joan of being a mere enthusiast, 
 and it is certain
 that Dunois, 
others of the best generals, 
took considerable latitude
 in obeying or deviating from THE—MILITARY orders that she gave, 
But over
 the mass of THE—PEOPLE and the soldiery, 
her influence was unbounded.
 While CHARLES and his doctors of theology, 
court ladies, 
 deliberating as to recognising or dismissing the Maid, 
a considerable
 period had passed away, 
             —DURING which a small army, 
the last gleanings,
 as it seemed, 
of THE—ENGLISH sword, 
had been assembled at BLOIS, 
 Dunois, 
La Hire, 
Xaintrailles, 
other chiefs, 
who to their natural
 valour were now beginning to unite the wisdom that is taught by
 misfortune, 
It was resolved to send Joan with this force and a convoy of
 provisions to Orleans, 
The distress of that city had now become urgent.
 But the communication with the open country was not entirely cut off:
 the Orleannais had heard of the Holy Maid whom Providence had raised
 up for their deliverance, 
their messengers urgently implored the
 dauphin to send her to them without delay.
 Joan appeared at the camp at BLOIS, 
clad in a new suit of brilliant
 white armour, 
mounted on a stately black war-horse, 
with a lance
 in her right hand, 
which she had learned to wield with skill and grace.
[See the description of her by Gui de Laval, 
quoted in the note to
 Michelet—PAGE—69, 
 and see the acCOUNT—OF—the banner at Orleans, 
 believed to bear an authentic portrait of the Maid, 
in Murray's Handbook
 for France—PAGE—175] 
Her head was unhelmeted, 
 so that all could behold
 her fair and expressive features, 
her deep-set and earnest eyes, 
 long black hair, 
which was parted across her forehead, 
bound by a
 ribbon behind her back, 
She wore at her side a small battle-axe, 
 consecrated sword, 
marked on the blade with 5 crosses, 
 at her bidding been taken for her from the shrine of St, 
Catherine at
 Fierbois, 
A page carried her banner, 
which she had caused to be made and
 embroidered as her Voices enjoined, 
It was white satin 
VOLUME—I—PAGE—238] 
strewn with fleur-de-lis, 
 and on it were the
 words "JHESUS MARIA," and the representation of the Saviour in His
Joan afterwards generally bore her banner herself in battle, 
 she
 said that though she loved her sword much, 
she loved her banner forty
 times as much, 
 and she loved to carry it because it could not kill any
 one.
 Thus accoutred, 
she came to lead the troops of FRANCE, 
who looked with
 soldierly admiration on her well-proportioned and upright figure, 
 skill with which she managed her war-horse, 
the easy grace with
 which she handled her weapons, 
Her MILITARY education had been short,
 but she had availed herself of it well, 
She had also the good sense to
 interfere little with the manoeuvres of the troops, 
leaving those things
 to Dunois, 
others whom she had the discernment to recognise as the
 best officers in the camp, 
Her tactics in ACTION were simple enough, 
 she herself described it--"I used to say to them, 
'Go boldly in among
 THE—ENGLISH,' and then I used to go boldly in myself." 
[Ibid] 
Such, 
 she told her inquisitors, 
was the only spell she used, 
 and it was one of
But while interfering little with THE—MILITARY discipline of the
in all matters of moral discipline she was inflexibly strict.
 All the abandoned followers of the camp were driven away, 
She compelled
 both generals and soldiers to attend regularly at confessional, 
 chaplain and other priests marched with THE—ARMY under her orders, 
 at every halt, 
an altar was set up and the sacrament administered, 
No
 oath or foul language passed without punishment or censure, 
Even the
 roughest and most hardened veterans obeyed her, 
They put off for a
 time the bestial coarseness which had grown on them
             —DURING a life of
 bloodshed and rapine, 
 they felt that they must go forth in a new spirit
 to a new career, 
acknowledged the beauty of the holiness in which
 the heaven-sent Maid was leading them to certain victory.
 Joan marched from BLOIS on the 26th of ;;04;; with a convoy of provisions
 for Orleans, 
accompanied by Dunois, 
the other chief
 captains of THE—FRENCH 
 and on the evening of the 28. they approached
 THE—TOWN, 
In the words of the old chronicler Hall: 
[Hall, 
f, 
127] 
"The
 ENGLISH—MEN, 
perceiving that they within could not long continue for
 faute of vitaile and pouder, 
kepte not their watche so diligently as
 thei were accustomed, 
nor scoured now the countrey environed as thei
 before had ordained, 
Whiche negligence the citizens shut in perceiving,
 sente worde thereof to THE—FRENCH captaines, 
which with Pucelle in the
 dedde tyme of the nighte, 
in a greats rayne and thunders, 
with all
 their vitaile and artillery entered into the citie."
 When it was day, 
the Maid rode in solemn procession through THE—CITY,
 clad in complete armour, 
mounted on a white horse, 
Dunois was by
 her side, 
all the bravest knights of her army and of the garrison
 followed in her train, 
The whole population thronged around her, 
women, 
children strove to touch her garments, 
or her banner,
 or her charger, 
They poured forth blessings on her, 
whom they ALREADY
 considered their deliverer, 
In the words used by two of them afterwards
 before the tribunal, 
which reversed THE—SENTENCE, 
but could not restore
 the life of the Virgin-MARTYR—OF—FRANCE, 
"THE—PEOPLE—OF—Orleans, 
 they 1, 
saw her in their city, 
thought that it was an angel from
 heaven that had come down to save them." Joan spoke gently in reply to
 their acclamations and addresses, 
She told them to fear God, 
trust
 in Him for safety from the fury of their enemies, 
She 1, 
went to the
 principal church, 
where TE DEUM was chaunted, 
 and then she took up her
 abode IN—THE—HOUSE of Jacques Bourgier, 
one of the principal citizens,
 and whose wife was a matron of good repute, 
She refused to attend a
 splendid banquet which had been provided for her, 
passed nearly all
 her time in prayer.
 When it was known by THE—ENGLISH that the Maid was in Orleans, 
 minds were not less occupied about her than were the minds of those in
 but it was in a very different spirit, 
THE—ENGLISH believed in
 her supernatural mission as firmly as THE—FRENCH did, 
 but they thought
 her a sorceress who had come to overthrow them by her enchantments, 
 old prophecy, 
which told that a damsel from LORRAINE was to save
had long been current, 
 and it was known and applied to Joan by
 foreigners as well as by the natives, 
For months THE—ENGLISH had heard
 of the coming Maid, 
 and the tales of miracles which she was said to have
 wrought, 
had been listened to by the rough yeomen of THE—ENGLISH camp
 with anxious curiosity and secret awe, 
She had sent a herald to the
 English generals before she marched for Orleans, 
 and he had summoned the
 English generals in the name of the Most High to give up to the Maid
 who was sent by Heaven, 
the keys of THE—FRENCH cities which they had
 wrongfully taken: and he also solemnly adjured THE—ENGLISH troops,
 whether archers, 
or men of the companies of war, 
or gentlemen, 
who were before THE—CITY—OF—Orleans, 
to depart thence to their
 homes, 
under peril of being visited by the judgment of God, 
On her
 arrival in Orleans, 
Joan sent another similar message, 
 but THE—ENGLISH
 scoffed at her from their towers, 
threatened to burn her heralds.
 She determined before she shed the blood of the besiegers, 
to repeat
 THE—WARning with her own voice, 
 and accordingly she mounted one of the
 boulevards of THE—TOWN, 
which was within hearing of the Tourelles, 
 thence she spoke to THE—ENGLISH, 
bade them depart, 
otherwise they
 would meet with shame and woe, 
SIR—WILLIAM Gladsdale (whom THE—FRENCH
 call GLACIDAS) commanded THE—ENGLISH post at the Tourelles, 
he and
 another English officer replied by bidding her go home and keep her
 cows, 
by ribald jests, 
that brought tears of shame and indignation
 into her eyes, 
But though THE—ENGLISH leaders vaunted aloud, 
the effect
 produced on their army by Joan's presence in Orleans, 
was proved four
 days after her arrival, 
on the approach of reinforcements and
 stores to THE—TOWN, 
Joan and La Hire marched out to meet them, 
 escorted the long train of provision waggons safely into Orleans,
 between THE—BASTILLEs of THE—ENGLISH, 
who cowered behind their walls,
 instead of charging fiercely and fearlessly, 
as had been their wont, 
on
 any French—BAND—that dared to show itself within reach.
 Thus far she had prevailed without striking a blow, 
 but the time was now
 come to test her courage amid the horrors of actual slaughter, 
 afternoon of THE—DAY—ON—WHICH she had escorted the reinforcements into
while she was resting fatigued at home, 
Dunois had seized an
 advantageous opportunity of attacking THE—ENGLISH bastille of St, 
Loup:
 and a fierce assault of the Orleannais had been made on it, 
which the
 English garrison of the fort stubbornly resisted, 
Joan was roused by a
 sound which she believed to be that of Her Heavenly Voices, 
 she called
 for her arms and horse, 
quickly equipping herself she mounted to
 ride off to where the fight was raging, 
In her haste she had forgotten
 her banner, 
 she rode back, 
without dismounting, 
had it given to her
 from the window, 
then she galloped to the gate, 
whence the sally had
 been made, 
On her way she met some of the wounded French who had been
 carried back from the fight, 
"Ha," she exclaimed, 
"I never can see
 French blood flow, 
without my hair standing on end." She rode out of the
 gate, 
met the tide of her countrymen, 
who had been repulsed from the
 English fort, 
were flying back to Orleans in confusion, 
At the sight
 of the Holy Maid and her banner they rallied and renewed the assault.
 Joan rode forward at their head, 
waving her banner and cheering them on.
 THE—ENGLISH quailed at what they believed to be the charge of hell, 
 S—Loup was stormed, 
its defenders put to the sword, 
except some few,
 whom Jean succeeded in saving, 
All her woman's gentleness returned when
 the combat was over, 
It was the 1, 
time that she had ever seen a
 battle-field, 
She wept at the sight of so many blood-stained and mangled
 corpses, 
 and her tears flowed doubly when she reflected that they were
 the bodies of CHRISTIAN men who had died without confession.
 The next day was ascension-day, 
it was passed by Joan in prayer, 
 on the following morrow it was resolved by THE—CHIEFs of the garrison
 to attack THE—ENGLISH forts on the south of the river, 
For this purpose
 they crossed the river in boats, 
after some severe fighting, 
 which the Maid was wounded in the heel, 
both THE—ENGLISH bastilles of
 the Augustins and St, 
JEAN—DE—Blanc were captured, 
The Tourelles were
 now the only post which the besiegers held on the south of the river.
 But that post was formidably strong, 
by its command of the bridge,
 it was the key to the deliverance of Orleans, 
It was known that a fresh
 English army was approaching under Falstolfe tO—REInforce the besiegers,
 and should that army arrive, 
while the Tourelles were yet in the
 possession of their comrades, 
there was great peril of all the
 advantages which THE—FRENCH had gained being nullified, 
of the siege
 being AGAIN actively carried on.
 It was resolved, 
by THE—FRENCH 
to assail the Tourelles at
 once, 
while the enthusiasm which the presence and the heroic valour
 of the Maid had created was at its height, 
But the enterprise was
 difficult, 
The rampart of the tete-du-pont, 
or landward bulwark, 
 the Tourelles was steep and high, 
 and Sir John Gladsdale occupied this
 all-important fort with 5 hundred archers and men-at-arms, 
 the very flower of THE—ENGLISH army.
 —EARLY, in the morning of the 7th of May, 
some thousands of the best
 French troops in Orleans heard mass and attended the confessional by
 Joan's orders, 
 and then crossing the river in boats, 
as on the preceding
 day they assailed the bulwark of the Tourelles, 
"with light hearts and
 heavy hands." But Gladsdale's men, 
encouraged by their bold and skilful
 leader, 
made a resolute and able defence, 
The Maid planted her banner
 on the edge of the fosse, 
then springing down into the ditch, 
she
 placed the 1, 
ladder against the wall, 
began to mount, 
An English
 archer sent an arrow at her, 
which pierced her corslet and wounded
 her severely between the neck and shoulder, 
She fell bleeding from the
 ladder, 
 and THE—ENGLISH were leaping down from the wall to capture her,
 but her followers bore her off, 
She was carried to the rear, 
laid
 upon the grass, 
 her armour was taken off, 
the anguish of her wound
 and the sight of her blood, 
made her at 1, 
tremble and weep, 
But her
 confidence in her celestial mission soon returned: her patron saints
 seemed to stand before her and reassure her, 
She sate up and drew the
 arrow out with her own hands, 
Some of the soldiers who stood by wished
 to stanch the blood, 
by saying a charm over the wound, 
 but she forbade
saying, 
that she did not wish to be cured by unhallowed means, 
She
 had the wound dressed with a little oil, 
then bidding her confessor
 come to her, 
she betook herself to prayer.
 In the meanwhile, 
THE—ENGLISH in the bulwark of the Tourelles, 
 repulsed the oft-renewed efforts of THE—FRENCH to scale the wall.
who commanded the assailants, 
was at 1, 
discouraged, 
 gave orders for a retreat to be sounded, 
Joan sent for him and the other
 generals, 
implored them not to despair, 
"By my God" she said to
"you shall soon enter in there, 
Do not doubt it, 
When you see my
 banner wave AGAIN up to the wall, 
to your arms AGAIN!  
the fort is yours.
 For the present rest a little, 
take some food and drink, 
They did
 so," says the old chronicler of the siege, 
[Journal du Siege d'Orleans,
 p, 
87] 
"for they obeyed her marvellously." The faintness caused by
 her wound had now passed off, 
she headed THE—FRENCH in another
 rush against the bulwark, 
who had thought her slain, 
 alarmed at her reappearance, 
 while THE—FRENCH pressed furiously and
 fanatically forward, 
A Biscayan soldier was carrying Joan's banner.
 She had told the troops that directly the banner touched the wall they
 should enter, 
The Biscayan waved the banner forward from the edge of
 the fosse, 
touched the wall with it, 
 and then all THE—FRENCH host
 swarmed madly up the ladders that now were raised in all directions
 against THE—ENGLISH fort, 
At this crisis, 
the efforts of THE—ENGLISH
 garrison were distracted by an attach from another quarter, 
THE—FRENCH
 troops who had been left in Orleans, 
had placed some planks over the
 broken part of the bridge, 
advanced across them to the assault of
 the Tourelles on the northern side, 
Gladsdale resolved to withdraw his
 men from the landward bulwark, 
concentrate his whole force in
 the Tourelles themselves, 
He was passing for this purpose across the
 drawbridge that connected the Tourelles and the tete-du-pont, 
when Joan,
 who by this time had scaled the wall of the bulwark, 
called out to him,
 "Surrender, 
surrender to THE—KING—OF—Heaven, 
Ah, 
Glacidas, 
you have
 foully wronged me with your words, 
but I have great pity on your soul
 and the souls of your men." THE—ENGLISHMAN, 
disdainful of her summons,
 was striding on across the drawbridge, 
when a cannon-shot from THE—TOWN
 carried it away, 
Gladsdale perished in the water that ran beneath.
 After his fall, 
the remnant of THE—ENGLISH abandoned all further
 resistance, 
3 hundred of them had been killed in the battle, 
 hundred were made prisoners.
 The broken arch was speedily repaired by the exulting Orleannais, 
 Joan made her triumphal re-entry into THE—CITY by the bridge that had so
 long been closed, 
Every church in Orleans rang out its gratulating
 peal, 
 and —THROUGHOUT the night the sounds of rejoicing echoed, 
 bonfires blazed up from THE—CITY, 
But in the lines and forts which the
 besiegers yet retained on the northern shore, 
there was anxious watching
 of the generals, 
there was desponding gloom among the soldiery, 
Even
 Talbot now counselled retreat, 
On the following morning, 
the Orleannais,
 from their walls, 
saw the great forts called "LONDON" and "S—LAWRENCE," in flames, 
 and witnessed their invaders busy in destroying
 the stores and munitions which had been relied on for the destruction of
 Orleans, 
Slowly and sullenly THE—ENGLISH army retired, 
 but not before
 it had drawn up in battle array opposite to THE—CITY, 
as if to challenge
 the garrison to an encounter, 
THE—FRENCH troops were eager to go out and
but Joan forbade it, 
THE—DAY was Sunday, 
"In the name of God,"
 she said, 
"let them depart, 
let us return thanks to God." She led
 the soldiers and citizens forth from Orleans, 
but not for the shedding
 of blood, 
They passed in solemn procession round THE—CITY walls, 
 then, 
while their retiring enemies were yet in sight, 
they knelt in
 thanksgiving to God for the deliverance which he had vouchsafed them.
 Within 3 months —FROM—THE—TIME—OF her 1, 
interview with the
 Dauphin, 
Joan had fulfilled the 1, 
part of her promise, 
the raising
 of —SIEGE—OF—Orleans, 
Within 3 months more she fulfilled the
 second part also, 
 and she stood with her banner in her hand by THE—HIGH
 altar at Rheims while he was anointed and crowned as King CHARLES—VII.
 of FRANCE, 
In the interval she had taken JARGEAU, 
TROYES, 
 strong places, 
 and she had defeated an English army in a fair field
 at Patay, 
The enthusiasm of her countrymen knew no bounds, 
 but the
 importance of her services, 
especially of her primary achievement
 at Orleans, 
may perhaps be best proved by the testimony of her enemies.
 There is extant a fragment of a letter from THE—REGENT BEDFORD to his
 royal nephew, 
HENRY—VI., 
in which he bewails the turn that THE—WAR
 had taken, 
especially attributes it to the raising of the siege
 of Orleans by Joan, 
BEDFORD's own words, 
which are preserved in Rymer,
x—PAGE—403] 
are as follows:--
 "AND ALLE THING THERE PROSPERED FOR YOU TIL THE TYME OF THE SIEGE OF
 ORLEANS, 
TAKEN IN HAND, 
GOD KNOWETH BY WHAT ADVIS.
 "AT THE WHICHE TYME, 
AFTER THE ADVENTURE FALLEN TO THE PERSONE OF MY
 COUSIN OF SALISBURY, 
WHOM GOD ASSOILLE, 
THERE FELLE, 
BY THE HAND OF GOD
 AS IT SEEMETH, 
A GREAT STROOK UPON YOUR PEUPLE THAT WAS ASSEMBLED THERE
 IN GRETE NOMBRE, 
CAUSED IN GRETE PARTIE, 
AS Y TROWE, 
OF LAKKE OF SADDE
 BELEVE, 
OF UNLEVEFULLE DOUBTE, 
THAT THEI HADDE OF A DISCIPLE AND
 LYME OF THE FEENDE, 
CALLED THE PUCELLE, 
THAT USED FALS ENCHANTMENTS AND
 SORCERIE.
 "THE WHICHE STROOKE AND DISCOMFITURE NOT OONLY LESSED IN GRETE PARTIE
 THE NOMBRE OF YOUR PEUPLE THERE, 
BUT AS WELL WITHDREWE THE COURAGE OF
 THE REMENANT IN MERVEILLOUS WYSE, 
COURAIGED YOUR ADVERSE PARTIE AND
 ENNEMYS TO ASSEMBLE THEM FORTHWITH IN GRETE NOMBRE."
 When CHARLES had been anointed —KING—OF—France, 
Joan believed that her
 mission was accomplished, 
in truth the deliverance of FRANCE from
 THE—ENGLISH, 
though not completed for many years afterwards, 
was then
 insured, 
The ceremony of a royal coronation and anointment was not
 in those days regarded as a mere costly formality, 
It was believed to
 confer the sanction and the grace of heaven upon the prince, 
who had
 previously ruled with mere human authority, 
Thenceforth he was the
 Lord's Anointed, 
one of the difficulties that had previously
 lain in the way of many Frenchman when called on to support CHARLES
 VII, 
was now removed, 
He had been publicly stigmatised, 
even by his own
 parents, 
as no true son of THE—ROYAL—race of FRANCE, 
THE—QUEEN-mother,
the partisans of Burgundy, 
called him the "Pretender
 to THE—TITLE—OF—Dauphin, 
" but those who had been led to doubt his
 legitimacy, 
were cured of their scepticism by the victories of the Holy
 Maid, 
by the fulfilment of her pledges, 
They thought that heaven had
 now declared itself in favour of CHARLES as the true heir of the crown
 of St, 
Louis, 
 and the tales about his being spurious were thenceforth
 regarded as mere English calumnies, 
With this strong tide of national
 feeling in his favour, 
with victorious generals and soldiers round him,
 and a dispirited and divided enemy before him, 
he could not fail to
 conquer, 
 though his own imprudence and misconduct, 
the stubborn
 valour which some of THE—ENGLISH still displayed, 
prolonged THE—WAR in
 FRANCE nearly to the time when the CIVIL—WAR—OF—the Roses broke out in
insured for FRANCE peace and repose.
 Joan knelt before the new-crowned king in THE—CATHEDRAL of Rheims, 
 shed tears of joy, 
She said that she had then fulfilled the work which
 the Lord had commanded her, 
The young girl now asked for her dismissal.
 She wished to return to her peasant home, 
to tend her parent's flocks
to live at her own will in her native village, 
["Je voudrais
 —BIEN—QUE—il voulut me faire ramener aupres mes pere et mere, 
et garder
 leurs brebis et betail, 
et faire ce que je voudrois faire."] 
 always believed that her career would be a short one, 
But CHARLES and
 his captains were loth to lose the presence of one who had such an
 influence upon the soldiery and THE—PEOPLE, 
They persuaded her to stay
 with THE—ARMY, 
She still showed the same bravery and zeal for the cause
She was as fervent as before in her prayers, 
as exemplary
 in all religious duties, 
She still heard her Heavenly Voices, 
 now no longer thought herself the appointed minister of heaven to lead
 her countrymen to certain victory, 
Our admiration for her courage
 and patriotism ought to be increased a hundred-fold by her conduct
 —THROUGHOUT the latter part of her career, 
amid dangers, 
against which
 she no longer believed herself to be divinely secured, 
Indeed she
 believed herself doomed to perish in little more than a year, 
["Des le
 commencement elle avait dit, 
'Il me faut employer: je ne durerai qu'un
 an, 
ou guere plus."--MICHELAIT v—PAGE—101] 
but she still fought on as
 resolutely, 
if not as exultingly as ever.
 As in the case of ARMINIUS, 
the interest attached to individual heroism
 and virtue makes us trace the fate of JOAN—OF—ARC after she had saved
 her country, 
She served well with CHARLES's army in the capture of
 LAON, 
SOISSONS, 
Compeigne, 
Beauvais, 
other strong places, 
 but in a
 premature attack on PARIS, 
in             14290900             , 
THE—FRENCH were repulsed,
 and Joan was severely wounded in the winter she was AGAIN in the field
 with some of THE—FRENCH troops, 
 and in the following spring she threw
 herself into the fortress of Compeigne, 
which she had herself won for
 THE—FRENCH—KING in the preceding autumn, 
which was now besieged by a
 strong Burgundian force.
 She was taken prisoner in a sally from Compeigne, 
on the 24th of May,
 and was imprisoned by THE—BURGundians 1, 
at ARRAS, 
then at a
 place called Crotoy, 
on THE—FLEMISH coast, 
until November, 
when for
 payment of a large sum of money, 
she was given up to THE—ENGLISH, 
 taken to ROUEN, 
which was then their main stronghold in FRANCE.
 "Sorrow it were, 
shame to tell,
 The butchery that there befell:"
 And the revolting details of the cruelties practised upon this young
 girl may be left to those, 
whose duty as avowed biographers, 
 to describe them, 
[The whole of the "Proces de Condamnation at de
 Rehabilitation de JEANNE—DE—ARC" has been published in 5 volumes, 
 the Societe de l'HISTOIRE—DE—France, 
All the passages from contemporary
 chroniclers and poets are added, 
 and the most ample materials are
 thus given for acquiring full information on a subject which is, 
to an
one of painful interest, 
There is an admirable essay on Joan
in the 138. number of the QUARTERLY] 
She was tried before an
 ECCLESIAstical tribunal on the charge of witchcraft, 
on the 30th of
 May, 
14310000             ,
she was burnt alive in the market-place at ROUEN.
 I will add but one remark on the character of the truest heroine that
 THE—WORLD has ever seen.
 If any person can be found in the present age who would join in the
 scoffs of VOLTAIRE against the Maid of Orleans and the Heavenly Voices
 by which she believed herself inspired, 
let him read the life of the
 wisest and best man that the heathen nations ever produced, 
Let him
 read of the Heavenly Voice, 
by which SOCRATES believed himself to be
 constantly attended, 
 which cautioned him on his way from the field of
 —BATTLE—AT—Delium, 
which from his boyhood to the time of his death
 visited him with unearthly warnings, 
[See CICERO, 
de Divinatione, 
 i—SECTION—41, 
 and see the words of SOCRATES himself, 
in Plato, 
Apol, 
Soc]
 Let the modern reader reflect upon this, 
unless he is prepared
 to term SOCRATES either fool or impostor, 
let him not dare to deride or
 vilify JOAN—OF—ARC.
14290000             ,JOAN—OF—ARC'S VICTORY—AT—ORLEANS, 
 AND 
15880000             THE DEFEAT OP THE SPANISH ARMADA, 
14520000             Final expulsion of THE—ENGLISH from FRANCE.
14530000             Constantinople taken, 
14530000             THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE—OF—THE—EAST destroyed by the Turkish Sultan Mahomet II.
14550000             Commencement of the CIVIL—WARs in ENGLAND between THE—HOUSEs of YORK and Lancaster.
14790000             UNION—OF—the CHRISTIAN kingdoms of SPAIN under FERDINAND and ISABELLA.
14920000             Capture of Grenada by FERDINAND oo ISABELLA, 
14920000             end of the Moorish dominion in SPAIN.
14920000             CHRISTOPHER—COLUMBUS discovers the New World.
14940000             CHARLES—VIII. of FRANCE invades ITALY.
14970000             Expedition of VASCO—DA—GAMA to THE—EAST Indies round the Cape of Good Hope.
15030000             [NEAPEL]NAPLES conquered from THE—FRENCH by the great Spanish general, GONSALVO—OF—CORDOVA.
15080000             LEAGUE—OF—CAMBRAY[CAMBRAI], by the PAPA, THE—EMPEROR, and THE—KING—OF—FRANCE, against Venice.
15090000             Albuquerque establishes THE—EMPIRE of the Portuguese in THE—EAST Indies.
15160000             Death of FERDINAND—OF—SPAIN, 
15160000             FERDINAND—OF—SPAIN is succeeded by his grandson CHARLES, afterwards THE—EMPEROR—CHARLES—V.
15170000             Dispute between Luther and Tetzel respecting the sale of indulgences, which is the immediate cause of THE—REFORMATION.
15190000             CHARLES—V, is elected EMPEROR—OF—GERMANY.
15200000             Cortez conquers Mexico.
15250000             FRANCIS—I, of FRANCE defeated and taken prisoner by the imperial army at Pavia.
15290000             LEAGUE—OF—SMALCALD[SCHMALKALDEN] formed by THE—PROTESTANT princes of GERMANY.
15330000             HENRY—VIII, renounces the Papal supremacy.
15330000             Pizarro conquers Peru.
15560000             Abdication of THE—EMPEROR—CHARLES—V, 
15560000             PHILIP—II., becomes KING—OF—SPAIN, and , 
15560000             FERDINAND—I, becomes EMPEROR—OF—GERMANY.
15570000             sic] ELIZABETH becomes QUEEN—OF—ENGLAND.
15570000             THE—SPANIARDS defeat THE—FRENCH at —BATTLE—OF—S—QUENTIN.
15710000             Don John of AUSTRIA at the HEAD—OF—the Spanish fleet, defeats THE—TURKS at Lepanto.
15710000             Don John of AUSTRIA at the HEAD—OF—the Spanish fleet, aided by the Venetian and the Papal squadrons, 
15720000             † † † —MASSACRE—OF—THE—PROTESTANTs in FRANCE on S—BARTHOLOMEW—DAY.
15790000             THE—NETHERLANDS revolt against SPAIN.
15800000             PHILIP—II., conquers PORTUGAL.
 CHAPTER—X, -- 
 "In that memorable year, when the dark cloud gathered round our coasts, 
when Europe stood by in fearful suspense to behold what should be the result of that great cast in the game of human politics, 
what the craft of ROMe, the power of PHILIP, the genius of Farnese, could achieve against the ISLAND-queen, 
with her Drakes and Cecils,--in that agony of THE—PROTESTANT faith and English name."--HALLam 
CONST, HIST, VOLUME—I—PAGE—220.
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, THE, a group of English captains was collected at the BOWLING—GREEN on the Hoe at Plymouth,
 whose equals have never before or since been brought together, 
even at that favourite mustering-place of the heroes of THE—BRITISH navy, 
There was Sir FRANCIS—DRAKE, the 1. English circumnavigator of the globe,
 the terror of every Spanish coast in THE—OLD—WORLDand the New World, 
 there was Sir John Hawkins, the rough veteran of many a daring voyage on the African and American seas and of many a desperate battle, 
 there was Sir Martin Frobisher, 1 of the earliest explorers of the Arctic seas 
 in search of that North-West Passage which is still the darling object of ENGLAND's boldest mariners, 
There was THE—HIGH-admiral of ENGLAND, Lord Howard of EffINGHAM, prodigal of all things in his country's cause, and
 who had recently had the noble daring to refuse to dismantle part of the fleet, 
though THE—QUEEN had sent him orders to do so, 
in consequence of an exaggerated report that the enemy had been driven back and shattered by a storm, 
Lord Howard (whom contemporary writers describe as being of a wise and noble courage, 
skilful in sea matters, 
wary and provident,
 and of great esteem among the sailors) resolved to risk his sovereign's anger, 
and , to keep the ships afloat at his own charge, 
rather than that ENGLAND should run the peril of losing their protection.
 Another of our ELIZABETHan sea-kings, Sir Walter Raleigh, 
was —TIME—AT—THAT commissioned to raise and equip the land-forces of Cornwall, 
 but,
 as he was also commander of Plymouth, 
we may well believe that he
 must have availed himself of the opportunity of KONSULting with the
 lord-admiral and other high officers which was offered by THE—ENGLISH
 fleet putting into that port, 
 and we may look on Raleigh as one of the
 group that was assembled at the BOWLING—GREEN on the Hoe, 
Many other
 brave men and skilful mariners, 
besides THE—CHIEFs whose names have been
 mentioned, 
were there, 
enjoying, 
with true sailor-like merriment, 
 temporary relaxation from duty, 
In the harbour lay THE—ENGLISH fleet
 with which they had just returned from a cruise to CORUNNA in search of
 information respecting the real condition and movements of the
 hostile, 
Armada, 
Lord Howard had ascertained that our enemies, 
 tempest-tost, 
were still formidably strong, 
 and fearing that part of
 their fleet might make for ENGLAND in his absence, 
he had hurried back
 to the Devonshire coast, 
He resumed his station at Plymouth, 
waited
 there for certain tidings of the Spaniard's approach.
 them collected in Lingard—VOLUME—i p, 
452, 
ET SEQ., 
 Thierry, 
VOLUME—i.
299, 
 Sharon Turner, 
VOLUME—I—PAGE—82, 
 and HISTOIRE—DE—Normandie par
 Lieguet—PAGE—242] 
Two of the monks of Waltham abbey, 
which Harold had
 FOUNDED a little time before his —ELECTION to the throne, 
had accompanied
 him to the battle, 
On the morning after the slaughter they begged and
 gained permission of the Conqueror to search for the body of their
 benefactor, 
The Norman soldiery and camp-followers had stripped and
 gashed the slain, 
 and the two monks vainly strove to recognise from
 among the mutilated and gory heaps around them the features of their
 former king, 
They sent for Harold's mistress, 
Edith, 
surnamed "the Fair"
 and the "Swan-necked," to aid them, 
The eye of love proved keener than
 the eye of gratitude, 
the Saxon lady, 
even in that Aceldama, 
knew her Harold.
 The KING his mother now sought the victorious Norman, 
begged the dead body of her son, 
But William at 1, answered in his wrath, 
 hardness of his heart, that a man who had been false to his word and his
 RELIGION should have no other sepulchre than the sand of the shore, 
 added, with a sneer, 
"Harold mounted guard on the coast while he was alive, 
 he may continue his guard now he is dead." 
 The taunt was an unintentional eulogy, 
 and a grave washed by the spray of the SUSSEX
 waves would have been THE—NOBLESt burial-place for the MARTYR—OF—Saxon
 freedom, But Harold's mother was urgent in her lamentations and her
 prayers: the Conqueror relented: like Achilles, 
he gave up the dead body of his fallen foe to a parent's supplications, 
 and the remains of King
 Harold were deposited with regal honours in Waltham Abbey.
 On CHRISTMAS—DAY of THE—SAME—YEAR, 
WILLIAM—THE—CONQUEROR was crowned at
—KING—OF—England.
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN —BATTLE—OF—HASTINGS, 
JOAN OF ARC'S VICTORY—AT—ORLEANS, 
10660000—1087000     Reign of WILLIAM—THE—CONQUEROR, 
Frequent risings of the English against him, 
 The successor of the murdered duke becomes the active ally of the English.
14200000             —TREATY—OF—TROYES is concluded between HENRY—V—KING—OF—ENGLAND, CHARLES—VI—KING—OF—FRANCE, PHILIP—DUKE—OF—BURGUNDY, 
14200000             —TREATY—OF—TROYES, stipulated that HENRY—V—KING—OF—ENGLAND should marry the Princess Catherine of FRANCE; 
14200000             —TREATY—OF—TROYES, stipulated that CHARLES—VI—KING—OF—FRANCE, —DURING his life-time, 
should keep the title and dignity of —KING—OF—France, but that HENRY should succeed him, 
should at once be entrusted with the administration of THE—GOVERNMENTt, 
 that THE—FRENCH crown should descend to HENRY's heirs, 
 that FRANCE and ENGLAND should for ever be united under one king, 
but should still retain their several usages, 
customs, 
privileges, 
 that all the
 princes, 
vassals, 
communities of FRANCE should swear allegiance to HENRY as their future king, 
should pay him present obedience as regent, 
 that HENRY should unite his arms to those of King CHARLES and THE—DUKE—OF—Burgundy, 
in order to subdue the adherents of CHARLES, 
the pretended dauphin, 
 and that these 3 princes should make
 no truce or PEACE—WITH—the Dauphin, 
but by the common consent of all
 3.
 constantly attended;  
 which cautioned him on his way from the field of —BATTLE—AT—Delium, 
 which from his boyhood to the time of his death visited him with unearthly warnings, 
de Divinatione—LIBER—i—SECTION—41;  
 Let the modern reader reflect upon this;  
unless he is prepared to term SOCRATES either fool or impostor, 
let him not dare to deride or vilify JOAN—OF—ARC.
14290000             JOAN—OF—ARC'S VICTORY—AT—ORLEANS, 
 AND ,
15880000             THE—DEFEAT—OF—THE SPANISH ARMADA, 
 THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE—OF—THE—EAST destroyed by the Turkish Sultan Mahomet II.
14550000             —COMMENCEMENT of the CIVIL—WARs in ENGLAND between THE—HOUSE of YORK and THE—HOUSE of Lancaster.
14790000             UNION—OF—the CHRISTIAN kingdoms of SPAIN under FERDINAND oo ISABELLA.
14940000             CHARLES—VIII, of FRANCE invades ITALY.
15030000             [NEAPEL]NAPLES conquered from THE—FRENCH by the great Spanish general GONSALVO—OF—CORDOVA.
15080000             LEAGUE—OF—CAMBRAY[CAMBRAI], 
15080000             LEAGUE—OF—CAMBRAY[CAMBRAI], by the PAPA, 
15080000             LEAGUE—OF—CAMBRAY[CAMBRAI], THE—EMPEROR, 
15080000             LEAGUE—OF—CAMBRAY[CAMBRAI], the —KING—OF—France, 
15080000             LEAGUE—OF—CAMBRAY[CAMBRAI], against Venice.
15160000             Death of FERDINAND—OF—SPAIN;  
15160000             FERDINAND—OF—SPAIN is succeeded by FERDINAND—OF—SPAIN his grandson CHARLES, 
15160000             —AFTERWARDS, FERDINAND—OF—SPAIN his grandson CHARLES THE—EMPEROR—CHARLES—V.
15170000             Dispute between Luther and Tetzel respecting the sale of indulgences, 
15170000             Dispute between Luther and Tetzel respecting the sale of indulgences is the immediate cause of THE—REFORMATION.
15190000             CHARLES—V, is elected EMPEROR—OF—GERMANY.
15250000             FRANCIS—I, of FRANCE defeated and 
15250000             FRANCIS—I, of FRANCE taken prisoner by THE—IMPERIAL—army at Pavia.
15330000             HENRY—VIII, renounces the Papal supremacy.
PHILIP—II., becomes King of
FERDINAND—I, EMPEROR—OF—GERMANY.
15570000             .[sic] 
15570000             THE—SPANIARDS defeat THE—FRENCH at —BATTLE—OF—S—QUENTIN.
15710000             Don John of AUSTRIA at the HEAD—OF—the Spanish fleet, aided by the Venetian and the Papal squadrons, defeats THE—TURKS at Lepanto.
15720000             † † † —MASSACRE—OF—THE—PROTESTANTs in FRANCE on S—Bartholomew's day.
15800000             PHILIP—II., conquers PORTUGAL.
 CHAPTER—X, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, a group of English captains was collected at the BOWLING—GREEN on the Hoe at Plymouth,
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, whose equals have never before or since been brought together, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, even at that favourite mustering-place of the heroes of THE—BRITISH navy.
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, There was Sir FRANCIS—DRAKE, the 1. English circumnavigator of the globe,
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, the terror of every Spanish coast in THE—OLD—WORLDand the New;  
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, there was Sir John Hawkins, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—Othe rough veteran of many a daring voyage on the African and American seas, of many a desperate battle;  
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, there was Sir Martin Frobisher, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, one of the earliest explorers of the Arctic seas in search of that North-West Passage which is still the darling object of ENGLAND's boldest mariners, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, There was THE—HIGH-admiral of ENGLAND, Lord Howard of EffINGHAM, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, prodigal of all things in his country's cause, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, in consequence of an exaggerated report that the enemy had been driven back and shattered by a storm, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, Lord Howard (whom contemporary writers describe as being of a wise and noble courage,  to keep the ships afloat at his own charge, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, AT—THAT—TIME Another of our ELIZABETHan sea-kings, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, Sir Walter Raleigh, was commissioned to raise and equip the land-forces of Cornwall;  
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, we may well believe that he must have availed himself of the opportunity of KONSULting with the lord-admiral and other high officers which was offered by THE—ENGLISH fleet putting into that port;  
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF,  and we may look on Raleigh as one of the group that was assembled at the BOWLING—GREEN on the Hoe, 
15880719             —AFTERNOON—OF, Many other brave men and skilful mariners, were still formidably strong;  
 and fearing that part of their fleet might make for ENGLAND in his absence, he had hurried back to the Devonshire coast, 
 He resumed his station at Plymouth, waited there for certain tidings of the Spaniard's approach.
 A match at bowls was being played, in which Drake and other high officers of the fleet were engaged, 
when a small armed vessel was seen running before the wind into Plymouth harbour, with all sails set.
 Her commander landed in haste, eagerly sought the place where THE—ENGLISH lord-admiral and his captains were standing, 
 His name was Fleming; Fleming was the master of a Scotch privateer;  and
 Fleming told THE—ENGLISH officers that he had that morning seen the Spanish Armada off the Cornish coast, 
 At this exciting information the captains began to hurry down to the water, 
 there was a shouting for the ship's boats: but 
 Drake coolly checked his comrades, 
insisted that the match should be played out.
 Drake said that there was plenty of time both to win the game and beat THE—SPANIARDS.
 The best and bravest match that ever was scored was resumed accordingly, 
 Drake and his friends aimed their last bowls with the same steady calculating coolness with which they were about to point their guns, 
 The winning cast was made;  and 
 then they went on board and prepared for ACTION, 
with their hearts as light and their nerves as firm as they had been on the Hoe BOWLING—GREEN.
 MEANWHILE the messengers and signals had been despatched fast and far through ENGLAND, 
to warn each town and village that the enemy had come at last, 
 In every seaport there was instant making ready by land and by sea;
 in every shire and every city there was instant mustering of horse and man.
[In MACAULAY's Ballad on the Spanish Armada, 
the transmission of the tidings of the Armada's approach, 
the arming of THE—ENGLISH—NATION, 
are magnificently described.
 The progress of the fire-signals is depicted in lines which are worthy of comparison with the renowned —PASSAGE in the Agamemnon, 
which describes the transmission of the
 beacon-light announcing the FALL—OF—Troy, 
from Mount Ida to Argos] 
 ENGLAND's best defence then, 
as ever, 
was her fleet;  and 
 after warping laboriously out of Plymouth harbour against the wind, 
the lord-admiral stood westward under easy sail, 
keeping an anxious look-out for
 the Armada, 
the approach of which was soon announced by Cornish fishing-boats, 
signals from the Cornish cliffs.
 The ENGLAND of our own days is so strong, 
the SPAIN of our own days is so feeble, 
that it is not possible, 
without some reflection and care,
 to comprehend the full extent of the peril which ENGLAND then ran from the power and the ambition of SPAIN, 
or to appreciate THE—IMPORTANCE
 of that crisis —IN—THE—HISTORY—OF—THE—WORLD, 
We had then no Indian or Colonial Empire save the feeble germs of our North American settlements,
 which Raleigh and Gilbert had recently planted, 
 Scotland was a separate kingdom;  and 
 IRELAND was then even a greater source of weakness, 
 a worse nest of rebellion than she has been in after times, 
 ELISABETH—II—VON—ENGLAND[QUEEN—ELIZABETH had found at her accession an encumbered revenue, 
a divided people and an unsuccessful foreign war, 
in which the last remnant of our possessions in FRANCE had been lost;  
 she had also a formidable pretender to her crown, 
whose interests were favoured by all THE—ROMAN—Catholic powers;  and
 even some of her subjects were warped by religious bigotryto deny her title, 
to look on her as an heretical usurper, 
 It is true that 
             —THE —YEARS OF HER REIGN which had passed away before the attempted —INVASÃON—OF—1588, 
 she had revived the commercial prosperity, 
THE—NATIONAL spirit, 
THE—NATIONAL loyalty of ENGLAND, 
 her resources, 
to cope with the colossal power of PHILIP—II., 
still seemed most scanty;  and 
 she had not a single foreign ally, 
except the Dutch,
 who were themselves struggling hard, 
as it seemed, 
hopelessly, 
 maintain their revolt against SPAIN.
 On the other hand PHILIP—II., 
was absolute master of an empire so
 superior to the other states of THE—WORLD in extent, 
in resources and
 especially in MILITARY and naval forces, 
as to make the project of
 enlarging that empire into a universal monarchy seem a perfectly
 feasible scheme, 
 and PHILIP had both the ambition to form that project,
 and THE—RESOLUTION to devote all his energies, 
all his means, 
 its realization, 
Since the downFALL—OF—THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE no such
 preponderating power had existed IN—THE—WORLD, 
             —DURING—THE—MEDIAeval
 centuries THE—CHIEF European kingdoms were slowly moulding themselves
 out of the feudal chaos, 
though their wars with each other were
 numerous and desperate, 
several of their respective kings figured
 FOR—A—TIME as mighty conquerors, 
none of them in those times acquired
 the consistency and perfect ORGANIZATION which are requisite for a
 long-sustained career of aggrandizement, 
After the consolidation of
 the great kingdoms, 
they for some time kept each other in mutual check.
             —DURING—the 1. half of the 
15000101—15991231    , the balancing —SYSTEM was successfully practised by European statesmen, 
when PHILIP—II. reigned, FRANCE had become so miserably weak through her CIVIL—WARs, that 
PHILIP—II. had nothing to dread from the rival state, which had so long curbed his father THE—EMPEROR—CHARLES—V, 
In GERMANY, 
Poland
 PHILIP—II. had either zealous friends and dependents, or weak and divided enemies, 
Against THE—TURKS PHILIP—II. had gained great and glorious successes; and 
PHILIP—II. might look round the continent of Europe without discerning a single antagonist of whom he could stand in awe, 
SPAIN, when PHILIP—II. acceded to the throne, was at the zenith of her power, 
The hardihood and spirit which the Arragonese, 
the Castilians, 
the other nations of the PENINSULA had acquired
             —DURING centuries of free institutions and successful war against the Moors, 
had NOT—YET become obliterated.
 CHARLES—V, had, indeed, destroyed the liberties of SPAIN, 
 but that had
 been done too recently for its full evil to be felt in PHILIP—II. his time, 
A people cannot be debased in a single generation, 
 and THE—SPANIARDS under
 CHARLES—V, 
proved THE—TRUTH of the remark, that no nation is ever so formidable to its neighbours, 
FOR—A—TIME, 
as is a nation,
after being trained up in self-government, 
passes suddenly under
 a despotic ruler, 
The energy of democratic institutions survives for a few generations, 
to it are superadded the decision and certainty which are the attributes of government, 
when all its powers are directed by a single mind, 
It is true that this preter-natural vigour
 is short-lived: national corruption and debasement gradually follow the
 loss of THE—NATIONAL liberties, 
 but there is an interval before their
 workings are felt, 
in that interval the most ambitious schemes of
 foreign conquest are often successfully undertaken.
 PHILIP had also the advantage of finding himself at the HEAD—OF—a large
 standing army in a perfect state of discipline and equipment, 
in an age
except some few insignificant corps, 
standing armies were unknown
 in CHRISTENdom, 
The renown of the Spanish troops was justly high, 
 the infantry in particular was considered the best IN—THE—WORLD, 
His
 fleet, 
was far more numerous, 
better appointed, 
than that of
 any other European power, 
 and both his soldiers and his sailors had the
 confidence in themselves and their commanders, 
which a long career of
 successful warfare alone can create.
 Besides the Spanish crown, 
PHILIP succeeded to the kingdom, 
of Naples
 and Sicily, 
THE—DUCHY—OF—MILAN, 
Franche-Comte, 
THE—NETHERLANDS, 
 Africa he possessed Tunis, 
Oran, 
the Cape Verde and the Canary Islands; and in Asia, 
the PHILIPPine and Sunda Islands and a part of the
 Moluccas, 
Beyond THE—ATLANTIC he was LORD—OF—the most splendid portions
 of the New world which "CHRISTOPHER—COLUMBUS found for Castile and LEON." THE—EMPIRE
 of Peru and Mexico, 
New SPAIN, 
Chili, 
with their abundant mines of
 the precious metals, 
Hispaniola and Cuba, 
many other of the American
 Islands, 
were provinces of the sovereign of SPAIN.
 PHILIP had, 
experienced the mortification of seeing the
 inhabitants of THE—NETHERLANDS revolt against his authority, 
 could he succeed in bringing back beneath the Spanish sceptre all
 the possessions which his father had bequeathed to him, 
But he had
 reconquered a large number of THE—TOWNs and districts that originally
 took up arms against him, 
BELGIUM was brought more thoroughly into
 implicit obedience to SPAIN than she had been before her INSURRECTION,
 and it was only HOLLAND and the 6 other Northern States that still
 held out against his arms, 
The contest had also formed a compact and
 veteran army on PHILIP his side, 
under his great general, 
 Prince of Parma, 
had been trained to act together under all difficulties
 and all vicissitudes of warfare, 
 and on whose steadiness and loyalty
 perfect reliance might be placed —THROUGHOUT any enterprise,
 however difficult and tedious, 
ALEXANDER Farnese, 
Prince of Parma,
 captain-general of the Spanish armies, 
governor of the Spanish
 possessions IN—THE—NETHERLANDS was beyond all comparison the greatest
 MILITARY genius of his age, 
He was also highly distinguished for
 political wisdom and sagacity, 
for his great administrative talents.
 He was idolised by his troops, 
whose affections he knew how to win
 without relaxing their discipline or diminishing his own authority.
 Pre-eminently cool and circumspect in his plans, 
but swift and energetic
 when the moment arrived for striking a decisive blow, 
neglecting no risk
 that caution could provide against, 
conciliating even the populations
 of the districts which he attacked by his scrupulous good faith, 
 moderation, 
his address, 
Farnese was one of the most formidable
 generals that ever could be placed at the HEAD—OF—an army designed not
 only to win battles, 
but to effect conquests, 
Happy it is for ENGLAND
 and THE—WORLD that this ISLAND was saved from becoming an arena for the
 exhibition of his powers.
 Whatever diminution the Spanish empire might have sustained in the
 NETHERLANDs, 
seemed to be more than compensated by the acquisition of
 PORTUGAL, 
which PHILIP had completely conquered in 1580, 
Not only that
 ancient kingdom itself, 
but all the fruits of the maritime enterprises
 of the Portuguese had fallen into PHILIP his hands, 
All the Portuguese
 colonies in America, 
THE—EAST Indies, 
acknowledged the
 sovereignty of the —KING—OF—Spain, 
 who thus not only united the
 whole PENINSULA—IBERIA under his single sceptre, 
but had acquired a
 transmarine empire, 
little inferior in wealth and extent to that which
 he had inherited at his accession, 
The splendid victory which his
in conjunction with the Papal and Venetian galleys, 
had gained at
 Lepanto over THE—TURKS, 
had deservedly exalted the fame of the Spanish
 marine —THROUGHOUT CHRISTENdom, 
 and when PHILIP had reigned thirty-5
the vigour of his empire seemed unbroken, 
the glory of the
 Spanish arms had increased, 
was increasing —THROUGHOUT THE—WORLD.
 One nation only had been his active, 
his persevering, 
his successful
 foe, 
ENGLAND had encouraged his revolted subjects in FLANDERS against
given them the aid in men and money without which they must
 soon have been humbled in the dust, 
English ships had plundered his
 colonies, 
 had denied his supremacy in the New World, 
as well as the
 Old, 
 they had inflicted ignominious defeats on his squadrons, 
 they
 had captured his cities, 
burned his arsenals on the very coasts
THE—ENGLISH had made PHILIP himself the object of personal
 insult, 
He was held up to ridicule in their stage plays and masks, 
 these scoffs at the man had (as is not unusual in such cases) excited
 the anger of the absolute king, 
even more vehemently than the injuries
 inflicted on his power, 
[See Ranke's Hist, 
Popes, 
VOLUME—II—PAGE—170]
 Personal as well as political revenge urged him to attack ENGLAND, 
Were
 she once subdued, 
the Dutch must submit, 
 FRANCE could not cope with him,
 THE—EMPIRE would not oppose him, 
 and universal dominion seemed sure to
 be the result of the conquest of that malignant ISLAND.
 There was yet another and a stronger feeling which armed KING—PHILIP
 against ENGLAND, 
He was one of the sincerest and sternest bigots of his
 age, 
He looked on himself, 
was looked on by others, 
 appointed champion to extirpate heresy and re-establish the Papal power
 —THROUGHOUT Europe, 
A powerful reACTION—AGAINST—Protestantism had
 taken place since the commencement of the second half of the sixteenth
PHILIP believed that he was destined to complete it, 
 Reform doctrines had been thoroughly rooted out from ITALY and SPAIN.
 BELGIUM, 
which had previously been half Protestant, 
had been reconquered
 both in allegiance and creed by PHILIP, 
had become one of the most
 Catholic countries IN—THE—WORLD, 
Half GERMANY had been won back to
 the old faith, 
In Savoy, 
in Switzerland and many other countries, 
 progress of the counter—REFORMation had been rapid and decisive, 
 Catholic league seemed victorious in FRANCE, 
THE—PAPA—COURT itself had
 shaken off the supineness of recent centuries, 
at the HEAD—OF—the
 JESUITs and the other new ECCLESIAstical orders, 
was displaying a vigour
 and a boldness worthy of THE—DAYs of Hildebrand or Innocent III.
 —THROUGHOUT continental Europe, 
THE—PROTESTANTs, 
discomfited and
 dismayed, 
looked to ENGLAND as their protector and refuge, 
ENGLAND was
 the acknowledged central point of Protestant power and policy, 
 and to
 conquer ENGLAND was to stab Protestantism to the very heart, 
SIXTUS—V.,
 the then reigning pope, 
earnestly exhorted PHILIP to this enterprise.
 And when the tidings reached ITALY and SPAIN that THE—PROTESTANT Queen
 of ENGLAND had put to death her Catholic prisoner, 
Mary QUEEN—OF—Scots,
 the fury of THE—VATICAN and Escurial knew no bounds.
 THE—PRINCE—OF—Parma, 
who was appointed MILITARY CHIEF—OF—THE—expedition,
 collected on THE—COAST—OF—FLANDERS a veteran force that was to play a
 principal part in the conquest of ENGLAND, 
Besides the troops who were
 in his garrisons, 
or under his colours, 
5 thousand infantry were sent
 to him from northern and central ITALY, 
four thousand from the kingdom
 of Naples, 
6 thousand from Castile, 
3 thousand from Arragon,
 3 thousand from AUSTRIA and GERMANY, 
together with 4 squadrons
 of heavy-armed horse, 
 besides which he received forces from the
 Franche-Comte and the Walloon country, 
By his command, 
the forest of
 Waes was felled for the purpose of building flat-bottomed boats, 
which,
 floating down the rivers and canals to Meinport and DUNKERQUE, 
were to
 carry this large army of chosen troops to the mouth of the Thames, 
 the escort of the great Spanish fleet, 
Gun-carriages, 
fascines, 
machines
 used in sieges, 
together with every material requisite for building
 bridges, 
forming camps, 
raising fortresses, 
were to be placed on
 board the flotillas of THE—PRINCE—OF—Parma, 
who followed up the conquest
 of THE—NETHERLANDS, 
whilst he was making preparations for the —INVASÃON
 of this ISLAND, 
Favoured by the dissensions between THE—INSURGENTS of
 the United Provinces and Leicester, 
THE—PRINCE—OF—Parma had recovered
 Deventer, 
as well as a fort before ZUTPHEN, 
which THE—ENGLISH
 commanders, 
SIR—WILLIAM Stanley, 
the friend of Babbington, 
Sir
 ROLAND YORK, 
had surrendered to him, 
when with their troops they passed
 over to the SERVICE—OF—PHILIP—II., 
after the death of Mary Stuart, 
 he had also made himself master of the Sluys, 
His intention was to leave
 to the Count de Mansfeldt sufficient forces to follow up THE—WAR with
 the Dutch, 
which had now become a secondary object, 
whilst he himself
 went at the HEAD—OF—fifty thousand men of the Armada and the flotilla,
 to accomplish the principal enterprise--that enterprise, 
 highest degree, 
affected the interests of the pontifical authority, 
 a bull, 
intended to be kept secret until THE—DAY of landing, 
Sixtus
 V., 
renewing the anathema fulminated against ELIZABETH by Pius V, 
 GREGORy XIII., 
affected to depose her from our throne, 
[See Mignet's
 Mary QUEEN—OF—Scots VOLUME—II]
 ELIZABETH was denounced as a murderous heretic whose destruction was an
 instant duty, 
A formal treaty was concluded (In ;;06;;, 
1587), 
by which
 the PAPA bound himself to contribute a million of scudi to the expenses
 THE—MONEY to be paid as soon as the king had actual
 possession of an English port, 
PHILIP, 
on his part, 
strained the
 resources of his vast empire to the utmost, 
THE—FRENCH Catholic chiefs
 eagerly co-operated with him, 
In the sea-ports of the Mediterranean, 
 along almost the whole coast from GIBRALTAR to Jutland, 
the preparations
 for the great armament were urged forward with all the earnestness of
as well as of angry ambition.--"Thus," says the German
 historian of the PAPAs, 
[Ranke, 
VOLUME—ii—PAGE—172] 
"thus did the united
 powers of ITALY and SPAIN, 
from which such mighty influences had gone
 forth over the whole world, 
now rouse themselves for an attack upon
 ENGLAND!  
The king had ALREADY compiled, 
from the archives of Simancas,
 a statement of the claims which he had to the throne of that country
 on the extinction of the Stuart line, 
 the most brilliant prospects,
 especially that of an universal dominion of the seas, 
were associated
 in his mind with this enterprise, 
Everything seemed to conspire to such
 end, 
 the predominance of Catholicism in GERMANY, 
the renewed attack upon
 the Huguenots in FRANCE, 
the attempt upon Geneva, 
the enterprise
At the same moment a thoroughly Catholic prince,
 SIGISMUND III., 
ascended the throne of Poland, 
with the prospect also of
 future succession to the throne of Sweden, 
But whenever any principle
 or power, 
be it what it may, 
aims at unlimited supremacy in Europe, 
some
 vigorous resistance to it, 
having its origin in the deepest springs
 of human nature, 
invariably arises, 
had had, 
to encounter
 newly-awakened powers, 
braced by the vigour of youth, 
elevated by a
 sense of their future destiny, 
The intrepid corsairs, 
who had rendered
 every sea insecure, 
now clustered round the coasts of their native
 ISLAND, 
THE—PROTESTANTs in a body,--even the Puritans, 
although they had
 been subjected to as severe oppressions as the Catholics,--rallied round
 their queen, 
who now gave admirable proof of her masculine courage, 
 her princely talent of winning the affections, 
leading the minds,
 and preserving the allegiance of men."
 Ranke should have added that THE—ENGLISH Catholics at this crisis proved
 themselves as loyal to their queen, 
true to their country, 
as were
 the most vehement ANTI—Catholic zealots in the ISLAND, 
Some few traitors
 there were, 
as a body, 
THE—ENGLISHMEN who held THE—ANCIENT faith,
 stood —THE—TRIAL—OF—their patriotism nobly, 
The lord-admiral himself was
 a Catholic, 
(to adopt the words of Hallam) "then it was that
 the Catholics in every county repaired to the —STANDARD of the
 lord-lieutenant, 
imploring that they might not be suspected of bartering
 THE—NATIONAL independence for their RELIGION itself." The Spaniard
 found no partisans in THE—COUNTRY which he assailed, 
nor did ENGLAND,
 self-wounded,
 "Lie at the proud foot of her enemy."
 For some time the destination of the enormous armament of PHILIP was not
 publicly announced, 
Only PHILIP himself, 
the PAPA Sixtus, 
THE—DUKE of
 GUISE, 
PHILIP his favourite minister, 
Mendoza, 
at 1, 
knew its real
 object, 
Rumours were sedulously spread that it was designed to proceed
 to THE—INDIES to realize vast projects of distant conquest, 
Sometimes
 hints were dropped by PHILIP his ambassadors in foreign courts, 
that his
 master had resolved on a decisive effort to crush his rebels in the Low
 Countries, 
But ELIZABETH and her statesmen could not view the gathering
 of such a storm without feeling the probability of its bursting on their
 own shores, 
As —EARLY, as —THE—SPRING—OF 1587, 
ELIZABETH sent Sir FRANCIS
 Drake to cruise off the Tagus, 
Drake sailed into the Bay of Cadiz and
 the Lisbon Roads, 
burnt much shipping and MILITARY stores, 
causing
 thereby an important delay in the progress of the Spanish preparations.
 Drake called this "Singeing the —KING—OF—of SPAIN's beard." ELIZABETH
 also increased her succours of troops to THE—NETHERLANDers, 
to prevent
 THE—PRINCE—OF—Parma from overwhelming them, 
from thence being at
 full leisure to employ his army against her dominions.
 Each party —AT—THIS—TIME thought it politic to try to amuse its adversary
 by pretending to treat for peace, 
negotiations were opened at Ostend
 in—THE—BEGINNING—OF 1588, 
which were prolonged
             —DURING—the 1, 
6
 months of that year, 
Nothing real was effected, 
probably nothing
 real had been intended to be effected by them, 
in the meantime,
 each party had been engaged in important communications with THE—CHIEF
 powers in FRANCE, 
in which ELIZABETH seemed at 1, 
to have secured a
 great advantage, 
but in which PHILIP ultimately prevailed, 
"HENRY—III.
 of FRANCE was alarmed at the negotiations that were going on at Ostend; and he especially dreaded any accommodation between SPAIN and ENGLAND,
 in consequence of which PHILIP—II., 
might be enabled to subdue the United
 Provinces, 
make himself master of FRANCE, 
In order, 
 dissuade ELIZABETH from any arrangement, 
he offered to support her,
 in case she were attacked by THE—SPANIARDS, 
with twice the number
 of troops, 
which he was bound by THE—TREATY—OF—1574 to send to her
 assistance, 
He had a long conference with her ambassador, 
STAFFORD,
 upon this subject, 
told him that the PAPA and the Catholic King had
 entered into a league against THE—QUEEN, 
his mistress, 
had invited
 himself and THE—VENETIANS to join them, 
but they had refused to do
'If THE—QUEEN—OF—ENGLAND,' he added, 
'concludes a PEACE—WITH—the
 Catholic king, 
that peace will not last 3 months, 
because the
 Catholic king will aid the League with all his forces to overthrow her,
 and you may imagine what fate is reserved for your mistress after
 that.' On the other hand, 
in order most effectually to frustrate this
 negotiation, 
he proposed to PHILIP—II., 
to form a still closer union
 between the two crowns of FRANCE and SPAIN: and, 
—TIME—AT—THE—SAME, 
 secretly despatched a confidential envoy to Constantinople to warn the
 Sultan, 
that if he did not AGAIN declare war against the Catholic King,
 that monarch, 
who ALREADY possessed THE—NETHERLANDS, 
PORTUGAL, 
SPAIN,
 THE—INDIES, 
nearly all ITALY, 
would soon make himself master of
would then turn the forces of all Europe against the
 Turks." 
[Mignet's HISTORY—OF—Mary QUEEN—OF—Scots, 
VOLUME—II]
 But PHILIP had an ally in FRANCE, 
who was far more powerful than the
 FRENCH—KING, 
This was THE—DUKE—OF—GUISE, 
THE—CHIEF—OF—THE—League, 
 the idol of the fanatic partisans of the Romish faith, 
PHILIP prevailed
 on GUISE openly to take up arms against HENRY—III, 
(who was reviled by
 the Leaguers as a traitor to the true Church, 
a secret friend to the Huguenots);  
 and thus prevent THE—FRENCH—KING from interfering in favour of ELISABETH II, 
KÖNIG—VON—ENGLAND[QUEEN—ELIZABETH ]QUEEN—ELIZABETH, 
"With this object, 
THE—COMMANDER, 
Juan Iniguez
 Moreo, 
was despatched by him in the —EARLY, part of ;;04;; to THE—DUKE of
 GUISE at SOISSONS, 
He met with complete success, 
He offered THE—DUKE of
as soon as he took the field against HENRY—III., 
3 hundred
 thousand crowns, 
6 thousand infantry, 
twelve hundred pikemen,
 on behalf of the king his master, 
who would, 
in addition, 
withdraw
 his AMBASSADOR—FROM THE—COURT—OF—France, 
accredit an envoy to the
 Catholic party, 
A treaty was concluded on these conditions, 
 DUKE—OF—GUISE entered PARIS, 
where he was expected by the Leaguers, 
 whence he expelled HENRY—III, 
on the 12th of May, 
by the INSURRECTION of
 the BARRICADEs, 
A fortnight after this INSURRECTION, 
which reduced HENRY
 III, 
to impotence, 
to use the language of THE—PRINCE—OF—Parma, 
did
 not even 'permit him to assist THE—QUEEN—OF—ENGLAND with his tears, 
 he needed them all to weep over his own misfortunes,' the Spanish fleet
 left the Tagus and sailed towards THE—BRITISH isles." 
[Mignet]
 Meanwhile in ENGLAND, 
from the sovereign on the throne to the peasant in
 the cottage, 
all hearts and hands made ready to meet the imminent
 deadly peril, 
Circular letters from THE—QUEEN were sent round to
 the lord-lieutenants of the several counties requiring them "to call
 together the best sort of gentlemen under their lieutenancy, 
 declare unto them these great preparations and arrogant threatenings,
 now burst forth in ACTION upon the seas, 
wherein every man's particular
 state, 
IN—THE—HIGHest degree, 
could be touched in respect of country,
 liberty, 
wives, 
children, 
lands, 
lives, 
(which was specially to be
 regarded) the profession of the true and sincere RELIGION of Christ: and
 to lay before them the infinite and unspeakable miseries that would
 fall out upon any such change, 
which miseries were evidently seen by
 the fruits of that hard and cruel government holden in countries not far
 distant, 
We do look," said THE—QUEEN, 
"that the most part of them should
 have, 
upon this instant extraordinary occasion, 
a larger proportion of
 furniture, 
both for horseman and footmen, 
but especially horsemen, 
 hath been certified, 
 thereby to be in their best strength against any
 attempt, 
or to be employed about our own person, 
or otherwise, 
Hereunto
 as we doubt not but by your good endeavours they will be the rather
 conformable, 
so also we assure ourselves, 
that Almighty God will so
 bless these their loyal hearts borne towards us, 
their loving sovereign,
 and their natural country, 
that all the attempts of any enemy whatsoever
 shall be made void and frustrate, 
to their confusion, 
your comfort, 
 to God's high glory." 
[Strype, 
cited in Southey's Naval History]
 Letters of a similar kind were also sent by THE—COUNCIL to each of the
 nobility, 
to the great cities, 
The primate called on THE—CLERGY for
 their contributions, 
 and by every class of the community the appeal was
 responded to with liberal zeal, 
that offered more even than THE—QUEEN
 required, 
The boasting threats of THE—SPANIARDS had roused the spirit of
 the nation, 
 and the whole people "were thoroughly irritated to stir
 up their whole forces for their defence against such prognosticated
 conquests, 
in a very short time, 
all the whole realm, 
every
 corner were furnished with armed men, 
on horseback and on foot, 
 these continually trained, 
exercised, 
put into bands, 
in warlike
 manner, 
as in no age ever was before in this realm, 
There was no sparing
 of money to provide horse, 
weapons, 
powder, 
all necessaries; no, 
nor want of provision of pioneers, 
carriages, 
victuals, 
in every
 COUNTY—OF—the realm, 
without exception, 
to attend upon the armies, 
 to this general furniture every man voluntarily offered, 
very many their
 services personally without wages, 
others money for armour and weapons,
 and to wage soldiers: a matter strange, 
never the like heard of in
 this realm or else where, 
this general reason moved all men to large
 contributions, 
that when a conquest was to be withstood wherein
 all should be lost, 
it was no time to spare a portion." 
[Copy of
 contemporary letter in the Harleian Collection, 
quoted by Southey]
 Our lion-hearted queen showed herself worthy of such a people, 
A camp
 was formed at Tilbury, 
 and there ELIZABETH rode through the ranks,
 encouraging her captains and her soldiers by her presence and her words.
 One of the speeches which she addressed to them
             —DURING this crisis has
 been preserved, 
though often quoted, 
it must not be omitted here.
 "My loving people," she said, 
"we have been persuaded by some that are
 careful of our safety, 
to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed
 multitudes for fear of treachery, 
 but I assure you I do not desire to
 live to distrust my faithful and loving people, 
Let tyrants fear!  
 always so behaved myself, 
under God, 
I have placed my chiefest
 strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good will of my subjects; and, 
I am come amongst you, 
as you see, 
at this time, 
not for
 my recreation or disport, 
but being resolved, 
in the midst and heat of
 the battle, 
to live or die amongst you all, 
to lay down for my God, 
 my kingdom, 
for my people, 
my honour and my blood, 
even in the dust.
 I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, 
but I have the
 heart and stomach of a king, 
of a —KING—OF—England too, 
 and think it
 foul scorn that Parma, 
or SPAIN, 
or any prince of Europe, 
should dare
 to invade the borders of my realm, 
 to which, 
rather than any dishonour
 shall grow by me, 
I myself will take up arms, 
I myself will be your
judge, 
rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field.
 I know ALREADY for your forwardness you have deserved rewards and
 crowns, 
 and we do assure you, 
on the word of a prince, 
they shall be
 duly paid you, 
In the meantime, 
my lieutenant-general shall be in my
 stead, 
than whom never prince commanded a more noble or worthy subject,
 not doubting but by your obedience to my general, 
by your concord in
 the camp, 
your valour in the field, 
we shall shortly have a famous
 victory over those enemies of my God, 
of my kingdom, 
of my people."
 We have minute proofs of the skill with which THE—GOVERNMENTt of
 ELIZABETH made its preparations, 
 for THE—DOCUMENTs still exist which
 were drawn up AT—THAT—TIME by the ministers and MILITARY men who were
 KONSULted by ELIZABETH respecting the defence of THE—COUNTRY, 
[See note
 in Tytler's Life of Raleigh—PAGE—71] 
Among those summoned to the advice
 of their queen at this crisis, 
were Sir Walter Raleigh, 
Lord Grey,
 Sir FRANCIS Knolles, 
Sir THOMAS Leighton, 
Sir John Norris, 
Sir Richard
 Grenville, 
Sir Richard BINGHAM, 
SIR—ROGER—WILLIAMS, 
 biographer of Sir Walter Raleigh observes that "These councillors were
 chosen by THE—QUEEN, 
as being not only men bred to arms, 
as Grey, 
Norris, 
BINGHAM, 
Grenville, 
of high MILITARY talents,
 but of grave experience in affairs of state, 
in the civil government
 of provinces,--qualities by no means means unimportant, 
when the debate
 referred not merely to the leading of an army or the plan of a campaign,
 but to the ORGANIZATION of a militia, 
the communication with the
 magistrates for arming the peasantry, 
encouraging them to a resolute
 and simultaneous resistance, 
From some private papers of Lord
 Burleigh, 
it appears that Sir Walter took a principal share in these
 deliberations, 
 and the abstract of their proceedings, 
a document still
 preserved, 
is supposed to have been drawn up by him, 
They 1, 
prepared
 a list of places where it was likely the Spanish army might attempt a
 descent, 
as well as of those which lay most exposed to the forces under
 THE—DUKE—OF—Parma, 
They next considered the speediest and most effectual
 means of defence, 
whether by fortification or the muster of a military
 array, 
lastly, 
deliberated on the course to be taken for fighting
 the enemy if he should land."
 Some of ELIZABETH's advisers recommended that the whole care and
 resources of THE—GOVERNMENTt should be devoted to the equipment of
 the armies, 
that the enemy, 
when he attempted to land, 
should be
 welcomed with a battle on the shore, 
But the wiser counsels of Raleigh
 and others prevailed, 
who urged THE—IMPORTANCE of fitting out a fleet,
 that should encounter THE—SPANIARDS at sea, 
if possible, 
prevent
 them from approaching the land at all, 
In Raleigh's great work on the
 "HISTORY—OF—THE—WORLD," he takes occasion, 
when discussing some of the
 events of the 1, 
PUNIC—WAR, 
to give his reasonings on the proper
 policy of ENGLAND when menaced with —INVASÃON, 
Without doubt, 
we have
 there the substance of the advice which he gave to ELIZABETH's council; and the remarks of such a man, 
on such a subject, 
have a general and
 enduring interest, 
beyond the immediate peril which called them forth.
 Raleigh 
[HISTORIE—of THE—WORLD pp, 
799--801] 
says:--"Surely I hold
 that the best way is to keep our enemies from treading upon our ground:
 wherein if we fail, 
then must we seek to make him wish that he had
 stayed at his own home, 
In such a case if it should happen, 
our
 judgments are to weigh many particular circumstances, 
that belongs not
 unto this discourse, 
But making the question general, 
the positive,
 WHETHER ENGLAND, 
WITHOUT THE HELP OF HER FLEET, 
BE ABLE TO DEBAR AN
 ENEMY FROM LANDING, 
 I hold that it is unable so to do, 
 and therefore I
 think it most dangerous to make the adventure, 
For the encouragement of
 a 1, 
victory to an enemy, 
the discouragement of being beaten, 
 the invaded, 
may draw after it a most perilous consequence.
 "Great difference I know there is, 
a diverse consideration to
 be had, 
between such a country as FRANCE is, 
strengthened with many
 fortified places, 
 and this of ours, 
where our ramparts are but the
 bodies of men, 
But I say that an army to be transported over sea, 
 be landed AGAIN in an enemy's country, 
the place left to the choice
 of the invader, 
cannot be resisted on THE—COAST—OF—ENGLAND, 
without
 a fleet to impeach it, 
 no, 
nor on THE—COAST—OF—FRANCE, 
or any other
 except every creek, 
port, 
or sandy bay, 
had a powerful army,
 in each of them, 
to make opposition, 
For let the supposition be granted
 that Kent is able to furnish twelve thousand foot, 
that those twelve
 thousand be layed in the 3 best landing-places within that country,
 to wit, 
3 thousand at Margat, 
3 thousand at the Nesse, 
 thousand at Foulkstone, 
that is, 
somewhat equally distant from them
 both, 
 as also that two of these troops (unless some other order be
 thought more fit) be directed to strengthen the third, 
when they shall
 see the enemies' fleet to head towards it: I say, 
that notwithstanding
 this provision, 
if the enemy, 
setting sail from THE—ISLE—OF—Wight,
 in the 1, 
towing their long boats at their
 sterns, 
shall arrive by dawn of day at the Nesse, 
thrust their army
 on shore there, 
it will be hard for those 3 thousand that are at
 Margat (twenty-and-four long miles from thence), 
to come time enough to
 reinforce their fellows at the Nesse, 
Nay, 
how shall they at Foulkstone
 be able to do it, 
who are nearer by more than half the way? seeing that
 the enemy, 
at his 1, 
arrival, 
will either make his entrance by force,
 with 3 or 4 shot of great artillery, 
quickly put the 1.
 3 thousand that are entrenched at the Nesse to run, 
or else
 give them so much to do that they shall be glad to send for help to
 Foulkstone, 
perhaps to Margat, 
whereby those places will be left
 bare, 
Now let us suppose that all the twelve thousand Kentish soldiers
 arrive at the Nesse, 
ere the enemy can be ready to disembarque his army,
 so that he will find it unsafe to land in the face of so many prepared
 to withstand him, 
yet must we believe that he will play the best of his
 own game (having liberty to go which way he list), 
under covert of
 the night, 
set sail towards THE—EAST, 
where what shall hinder him to
 take ground either at Margat, 
the Downes, 
or elsewhere, 
before they,
 at the Nesse, 
can be well aware of his departure? Certainly there is
 nothing more easy than to do it, 
the like may be said of Weymouth,
 Purbeck, 
Poole, 
of all landing-places on the south-west, 
For there
 is no man ignorant, 
that ships without putting themselves out of breath,
 will easily outrun the souldiers that coast them, 
'LES ARMEES NE VOLENT
 POINT EN POSTE, 
'--'Armies neither flye, 
nor run post,' saith a marshal
I know it to be true, 
that a fleet of ships may be seen
 at sunset, 
after it at the Lizard, 
yet by the next morning they may
 recover Portland, 
whereas an army of foot shall not be able to march it
 in 6 dayes, 
when those troops lodged on the sea-shores, 
shall
 be forced to run from place to place in vain, 
after a fleet of ships,
 they will at length sit down in the midway, 
leave all at adventure.
 But say it were otherwise, 
that the invading enemy will offer to land in
 some such place, 
where there shall be an army of ours ready to receive
 yet it cannot be doubted, 
but that when the choice of all our
 trained bands, 
the choice of our commanders and captains, 
shall be
 drawn together (as they were at Tilbury 
15880000             —J—IM, to attend the
 person of the prince, 
for the defence of THE—CITY—OF—LONDON, 
 that remain to guard the coast can be of no such force as to encounter
 an army like unto that wherewith it was intended that the Prince of
 Parma should have landed in ENGLAND.
 "For end of this digression, 
I hope that this question shall never come
 to trial, 
 his majestie's many moveable forts will forbid the experience.
 And although THE—ENGLISH will no less disdain that any nation under
 heaven can do, 
to be beaten, 
upon their own ground, 
by a
 foreign enemy, 
 yet to entertain those that shall assail us with their
 own beef in their bellies, 
before they eat of our Kentish capons, 
 take it to be the wisest way, 
 to do which his majesty, 
after God, 
will
 employ his good ships on the sea, 
not trust in any intrenchment upon
 the shore."
 The—INTRODUCTIOn of s—TEAM as a propelling power at sea, 
has added
 tenfold weight to these arguments of Raleigh, 
 well-constructed —SYSTEM of railways, 
especially of coast-lines, 
 by THE—OPERATION or the electric telegraph, 
would give facilities for
 concentrating a defensive army to oppose an enemy on landing, 
 moving troops from place to place in observation of the movements of the
 hostile fleet, 
such as would have astonished Sir Walter even more than
 the sight of vessels passing rapidly to and fro without the aid of wind
 or tide, 
The observation of THE—FRENCH marshal, 
whom he quotes, 
is now
 no longer correct, 
Armies can be made to pass from place to place almost
 with the speed of wings, 
far more rapidly than any post-travelling
 that was known in the ELIZABETHan or any other age, 
Still, 
the presence
 of a sufficient armed force at the right spot, 
at the right time, 
can
 never be made a matter of certainty, 
 and even after the changes that
 have taken place, 
no one can doubt but that the policy of Raleigh is
 that which ENGLAND should ever seek to follow in defensive war, 
At the
 time of the Armada, 
that policy certainly saved THE—COUNTRY, 
if not from
at least from deplorable calamities, 
If indeed the enemy had
 landed, 
we may be sure that he would have been heroically opposed, 
 history shows us so many examples of the superiority of veteran troops
 over new levies, 
however numerous and brave, 
that without disparaging
 our countrymen's soldierly merits, 
we may well be thankful that no trial
 of them was then made on English land, 
Especially must we feel this,
 when we contrast THE—HIGH MILITARY genius of THE—PRINCE—OF—Parma, 
 would have headed THE—SPANIARDS, 
with the imbecility of the Earl of
 Leicester, 
to whom the deplorable spirit of favouritism, 
which formed
 the greatest blemish in ELIZABETH's character, 
had then committed the
 chief command of THE—ENGLISH armies.
 The ships of THE—ROYAL—navy —AT—THIS—TIME amounted to no more than
 thirty-6, 
 but the most serviceable merchant vessels were collected
 from all the ports of THE—COUNTRY, 
 and the citizens of LONDON, 
Bristol,
 and the other great seats of commerce, 
showed as liberal a zeal in
 equipping and manning vessels as the nobility and gentry displayed in
 mustering forces by land, 
The seafaring population of the coast, 
 every rank and station, 
was animated by the same ready spirit, 
 whole number of seamen who came forward to man THE—ENGLISH fleet was
 17,472, 
The number of the ships that were collected was 191, 
 total amount of their tonnage 31,985, 
There was one ship in the fleet
 (the Triumph) of 1100 tons, 
one of 1000, 
one of 900, 
two of 800 each,
 3 of 600, 
5 of 600, 
5 of 400, 
6 of 300, 
6 of 250, 
twenty
 of 200, 
the residue of inferior burden, 
Application was made to the
 Dutch for assistance, 
as Stows expresses it, 
"The HOLLANDers came
 roundly in, 
with threescore sail, 
brave ships of war, 
fierce and full of
 spleen, 
not so much for ENGLAND's aid, 
as in just occasion for their
 own defence, 
 these men foreseeing the greatness of THE—DANGER that might
 ensue, 
if THE—SPANIARDS should chance to win THE—DAY and get the mastery
 over them, 
 in due regard whereof their manly courage was inferior to
 none."
 We have more minute information of the numbers and equipment of the
 hostile forces than we have of our own, 
In the 1, 
volume of Hakluyt's
 "Voyages," dedicated to Lord EffINGHAM, 
who commanded against the
 Armada, 
there is given (from the contemporary foreign writer, 
Meteran) a
 more complete and detailed catalogue than has perhaps ever appeared of a
 similar armament.
 "A very large and particular description of this navie was put in print
 and published by THE—SPANIARDS, 
 wherein was set downe the number,
 names, 
burthens of the shippes, 
the number of mariners and soldiers
 —THROUGHOUT the whole fleete, 
 likewise the quantitie of their ordinance,
 of their armour of bullets, 
of match, 
of gun-poulder, 
of victuals,
 and of all their navall furniture, 
was —IN—THE—saide description
 particularized, 
Unto all these were added the names of the governours,
 captaines, 
noblemen, 
gentlemen voluntaries, 
of whom there was so
 great a multitude, 
that scarce was there any family of accompt, 
 one principall man —THROUGHOUT all Spaine, 
that had not a brother, 
sonne,
 or kinsman in that fleete, 
 who all of them were in good hope to purchase
 unto themselves in that navie (as they termed it) invincible, 
endless
 glory and renown, 
to possess themselves of great seigniories and
 riches in ENGLAND, 
in the Low Countreys, 
But because the said
 description was translated and published out of Spanish into divers
 other languages, 
we will here only make an abridgement or brief
 rehearsal thereof.
 "PORTUGAL furnished and set foorth under the conduct of THE—DUKE of
 MEDINA Sidonia, 
generall of the fleete, 
ten galeons, 
two zabraes,
 1.300 mariners, 
3.300 souldiers, 
300 great pieces, 
with all requisite
 furniture.
 "Biscay, 
under the conduct of John Martines de Ricalde, 
admiral of the
 whole fleete, 
set forth tenne galeons, 
four pataches, 
700 mariners, 
2.000
 souldiers, 
260 great pieces, 
&c.
 "Guipusco, 
under the conduct of Michael de Orquendo, 
tenne galeons, 
 pataches, 
2.000 souldiers, 
310 great pieces.
 "ITALY with the Levant Islands, 
under Martine de Vertendona, 
ten
 galeons, 
800 mariners, 
310 great pieces, 
 "Castile, 
under Diego Flores de Valdez, 
fourteen galeons, 
two pataches,
 1.700 mariners, 
2.400 souldiers, 
388 great pieces, 
 "Andaluzia, 
under the conduct of PETRO de Valdez, 
one
 patache, 
280 great pieces, 
 "Item, 
under the conduct of John Lopez de MEDINA, 
twenty-3 great
 FLEMISH hulkes, 
with 700 mariners, 
3.200 souldiers, 
400 great pieces,
under Hugo de Moncada, 
fours galliasses, 
containing 1200
 gally-slaves, 
460 mariners, 
870 souldiers, 
200 great pieces, 
under Diego de Mandrana, 
fours gallies of PORTUGALl with 888
360 mariners, 
twenty great pieces, 
other requisite
under Anthonie DE—MENDOZA, 
twenty-two pataches and zabraes, 
 574 mariners, 
488 souldiers, 
193 great pieces.
 "Besides the ships aforementioned, 
there were twenty caravels rowed with
 oares, 
being appointed to perform necessary services under the greater
 ships, 
insomuch that all the ships appertayning to this navie amounted
 unto the summe of 150, 
eche one being sufficiently provided of furniture
 and victuals.
 "The number of mariners —IN—THE—saide fleete were above 8000, 
of slaves
 2.088, 
of souldiers 20,000 (besides noblemen and gentlemen voluntaries),
 of great cast pieces 2.600, 
The aforesaid ships were of an huge and
 incredible capacitie and receipt: for the whole fleete was large enough
 to contains the burthen of 60,000 tunnes.
 "The galeons were 64 in number, 
being of an huge bignesse, 
very
 flately built, 
being of marveilous force also, 
so high, 
that they
 resembled great CASTLES, 
most fit to defend themselves and to withstand
 any assault, 
but in giving any other ships the encounter farr inferiour
 unto THE—ENGLISH and Dutch ships, 
which can with great dexteritie weild
 and turne themselves at all assayes, 
The upperworke of the said galeons
 was of thicknesse and strength sufficient to bear off musket-shot, 
 lower works and the timbers thereof were out of measure strong, 
 framed of plankes and ribs fours or 5 foote in thicknesse, 
insomuch
 that no bullets could pierce them, 
but such as were discharged hard at
 which afterward prooved true, 
for a great number of bullets
 were found to sticke fast within the massie substance of those thicke
 plankes, 
Great and well pitched cables were twined about the masts of
 their shippes, 
to strengthen them against the battery of shot.
 "THE—GALLIasses were of such bignesse, 
that they contained within them
 chambers, 
chapels, 
turrets, 
pulpits, 
other commodities of great
 houses, 
THE—GALLIasses were rowed with great oares, 
there being in eche
 one of them 300 slaves for the same purpose and were able to do great
 service with the force of their ordinance, 
All these, 
together with
 the residue aforenamed, 
were furnished and beautified with trumpets,
 streamers, 
banners, 
warlike ensignes, 
other such like ornaments.
 "Their pieces of brazen ordinance were 1600, 
of yron 1000.
 "The bullets thereto belonging were 120 thousand.
 "Item of gun-poulder, 
5.600 quintals, 
Of matche, 
1.200 quintals, 
Of
 muskets and kaleivers, 
70.000.000             ,
Of haleberts and partisans, 
10,000.
 "Moreover they had great store of canons, 
double-canons, 
culverings and
 field-pieces for land services.
 "Likewise they were provided of all instruments necessary on land to
 conveigh and transport their furniture from place to place, 
 as namely of
 carts, 
wheeles, 
wagons, 
&c, 
Also they had spades, 
mattocks, 
baskets,
 to set pioners to works, 
They had in like sort great store of mules and
whatsoever else was requisite for a land-armie, 
They were so
 well stored of biscuit, 
that for the space of halfe a yeere, 
they might
 allow eche person in the whole fleete halfe a quintall every month; whereof the whole summe amounteth unto an hundreth thousand quintals.
 "Likewise of wine they had 147 thousand pipes, 
sufficient also for halfe
 a yeeres expedition, 
Of bacon, 
6.500 quintals, 
Of cheese, 
3 thousand
 quintals, 
Besides fish, 
rise, 
beanes, 
pease, 
oils, 
vinegar, 
 "Moreover they had 12,000 pipes of fresh water, 
all other necessary
 provision, 
as, 
namely, 
candles, 
lanternes, 
lampes, 
sailes, 
hempe,
 oxe-hides, 
lead to stop holes that should be made with the battery
 of gun-shot, 
To be short, 
they brought all things expedient, 
either for
 a fleete by sea, 
or for an armie by land.
 "This navie (as Diego Pimentelli afterward confessed) was esteemed by
 the king himselfe to containe 32,000 persons, 
to cost him —EVERY—DAY
 30 thousand ducates.
 "There were —IN—THE—said navie 5 terzaes of Spaniards (which terzaes
 THE—FRENCHmen call regiments), 
under the command of 5 governours,
 termed by THE—SPANIARDS masters of the field, 
amongst the rest
 there were many olde and expert souldiers chosen out of the garisons
 of Sicilie, 
Naples, 
Tercera, 
Their captaines or colonels were Diego
 Pimentelli, 
Don FRANCISco de TOLEDO, 
Don Alonco de Lucon, 
Don Nicolas de
 Isla, 
Don AUGUSTIN de Mexia, 
 who had each of them thirty-two companies
 under their conduct, 
Besides the which companies, 
there were many bands
 also of Castilians and PORTUGALs, 
every one of which had their peculiar
 governours, 
captains, 
officers, 
colours, 
weapons."
 While this huge armada was making ready —IN—THE—southern ports of the
 Spanish dominions, 
THE—PRINCE—OF—Parma, 
with almost incredible toil and
 skill, 
collected a squadron of war-ships at Dunkirk, 
his flotilla of
 other ships and of flat-bottomed boats for the transport to ENGLAND of
 the picked troops, 
which were designed to be the main instruments in
 subduing ENGLAND, 
Thousands of workmen were employed, 
night and day, 
 the construction of these vessels, 
in the ports of FLANDERS and Brabant.
 One hundred of the kind called hendes, 
built at Antwerp, 
Bruges, 
 GHENT, 
laden with provision and ammunition, 
together with sixty
 flat-bottomed boats, 
each capable of carrying thirty horses, 
 brought, 
by means of canals and fosses, 
dug expressly for the purpose,
 to Nieuport and Dunkirk, 
One hundred smaller vessels were equipped
 at THE—FORMER—place, 
thirty-two at Dunkirk, 
provided with twenty
 thousand empty barrels, 
with materials for making pontoons, 
 stopping up the harbours, 
raising forts and entrenchments, 
 army which these vessels were designed to convey to ENGLAND amounted
 to thirty thousand strong, 
besides a body of 4 thousand cavalry,
 stationed at Courtroi, 
composed chiefly of the ablest veterans of
 invigorated by rest, 
(—SIEGE—OF—Sluys having been the only
 enterprise in which they were employed
             —DURING—the last campaign,) and
 excited by the hopes of plunder and the expectation of certain conquest.
[Davis's HOLLAND, 
VOLUME—II—PAGE—219] 
And "to this great enterprise
 and imaginary conquest, 
divers princes and noblemen came from divers
 out of SPAIN came THE—DUKE—OF—Pestrana, 
who was said to be
 the son of Ruy Gomez de Silva, 
but was held to be the KING his bastard; THE—MARQUIS of Bourgou, 
one of THE—ARCH—DUKE FERDINAND's sons, 
 PHILIPPina Welserine, 
 Don VESPASIAN GONZAGA, 
of THE—HOUSE of MANTUA,
 a great soldier, 
who had been viceroy in SPAIN, 
 GIOVANNI—DE—Medici,
 Bastard of FLORENCE[FLORENZ], 
 Amedo, 
Bastard of Savoy, 
with many such like,
 besides others of meaner quality." 
[Grimstone, 
cited in Southey]
 PHILIP had been advised by the deserter, 
not to
 attack ENGLAND in the 1, 
instance, 
but 1, 
to effect a landing
 and secure a strong position in IRELAND, 
 his admiral, 
SANTA—CRUZ, 
 recommended him to make sure, 
of some large
 harbour on THE—COAST—OF—HOLLAND or Zealand, 
where the Armada, 
having
 entered the Channel, 
might find shelter in case of storm, 
whence
 it could sail without difficulty for ENGLAND, 
 but PHILIP rejected both
 these counsels, 
directed that ENGLAND itself should be made the
 immediate object of attack, 
 and on the 20th of May the Armada left the
 Tagus, 
in the pomp and pride of supposed invincibility, 
amidst the
 shouts of thousands, 
who believed that ENGLAND was ALREADY conquered.
 But steering to the northward, 
before it was clear of the coast of
the Armada, 
was assailed by a violent storm, 
driven back with
 considerable damage to the ports of Biscay and GALICIA, 
It had, 
 sustained its heaviest loss before it left the Tagus, 
in the death
 of the veteran admiral SANTA—CRUZ, 
who had been destined to guide it
 against ENGLAND.
 This experienced sailor, 
notwithstanding his diligence and success, 
 been unable to keep pace with the impatient ardour of his master.
 PHILIP—II., 
had reproached him with his dilatoriness, 
had said with
 ungrateful harshness, 
"You make an ill return for all my kindness to
 you." These words cut the veteran's heart, 
proved fatal to Santa
 Cruz, 
Overwhelmed with fatigue and grief, 
he sickened and died, 
 II, 
had replaced him by Alonzo Perez de Gusman, 
Duke of MEDINA Sidonia,
 one of the most powerful of the Spanish grandees, 
but wholly unqualified
 to command such an expedition, 
as his lieutenants, 
 sea men of proved skill and bravery, 
Juan de Martinez Recalde of Biscay,
 and Miguel Orquendo of Guipuzcoa.
 THE—REPORT of the storm which had beaten back the Armada reached ENGLAND
 with much exaggeration, 
it was supposed by some of THE—QUEEN's
 counsellors that the —INVASÃON would now be deferred to another year, 
 Lord Howard of EffINGHAM, 
the lord high-admiral of THE—ENGLISH fleet,
 judged more wisely that THE—DANGER was NOT—YET passed, 
as ALREADY
had the moral courage to refuse to dismantle his principal
though he received orders to that effect, 
But it was not Howard's
 design to keep THE—ENGLISH fleet in costly inaction, 
to wait
 patiently in our own harbours, 
till THE—SPANIARDS had recruited their
 strength, 
sailed forth AGAIN to attack us, 
THE—ENGLISH seamen of
 that age (like their successors) loved to strike better than to parry,
 though, 
when emergency required, 
they could be patient and cautious in
 their bravery, 
It was resolved to proceed to SPAIN, 
to learn the enemy's
 real condition, 
to deal him any blow for which there might be
 opportunity, 
In this bold policy we may well believe him to have been
 eagerly seconded by those who commanded under him, 
Howard and Drake
 sailed accordingly to CORUNNA, 
hoping to surprise and attack some part
 of the Armada in that harbour, 
 but when near THE—COAST—OF—SPAIN, 
 north wind, 
which had blown up to that time, 
veered suddenly to the
 and fearing that THE—SPANIARDS might put to sea and pass him
 unobserved, 
Howard returned to the entrance of the Channel, 
 cruised for some time on the look-out for the enemy, 
In part of a letter
 written by him at this period, 
he speaks of the difficulty of guarding
 so large a breadth of sea--a difficulty that ought not to be forgotten
 when modern schemes of defence against hostile fleets from the south are
 discussed, 
"I myself," he wrote, 
"do lie in the midst of the Channel,
 with the greatest force, 
 Sir FRANCIS—DRAKE hath twenty ships, 
 or 5 pinnaces, 
which lie towards Ushant, 
 and Mister Hawkins, 
with as
 many more, 
lieth towards Scilly, 
Thus we are fain to do, 
or else with
 this wind they might pass us by, 
we never the wiser, 
The SLEEVE is
 another manner of thing than it was taken for: we find it by experience
 and daily observation to be 100 miles over: a large room for me to
 look unto!" But after some time further reports that THE—SPANIARDS
 were inactive in their harbour, 
where they were suffering severely from
 sickness, 
caused Howard also to relax in his vigilance, 
 and he returned
 to Plymouth with the greater part of his fleet.
 On the 12th of July, 
the Armada having completely refitted, 
sailed AGAIN
 for the Channel, 
reached it without obstruction or observation by
 THE—ENGLISH.
 The design of THE—SPANIARDS was, 
that the Armada should give them, 
 least FOR—A—TIME, 
the command of the sea, 
that it should join the
 squadron which Parma had collected, 
off Calais, 
Then, 
escorted by an
 overpowering naval force, 
Parma and his army were to embark in their
 flotilla, 
cross the sea to ENGLAND where they were to be landed,
 together with the troops which the Armada brought from the ports of
The scheme was not dissimilar to one formed against ENGLAND a
 little more than two centuries afterwards.
 As NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
in 1805, 
waited with his army and flotilla at BOULOGNE,
 looking for Villeneuve to drive away THE—ENGLISH cruisers, 
secure
 him a —PASSAGE across the Channel, 
so Parma, 
in 1588, 
waited for MEDINA
 Sidonia to drive away the Dutch and English squadrons that watched his
to enable his veterans to cross the sea to the land that
 they were to conquer, 
Thanks to Providence, 
in each case ENGLAND's enemy
 waited in vain!
 Although the numbers of sail which THE—QUEEN's government, 
 patriotic zeal of volunteers, 
had collected for the defence of ENGLAND
 exceeded the number of sail —IN—THE—spanish fleet, 
THE—ENGLISH ships
 were, 
collectively, 
far inferior in size to their adversaries, 
 their
 aggregate tonnage being less by half than that of the enemy, 
 number of guns, 
weight of metal, 
the disproportion was still
 greater, 
THE—ENGLISH admiral was also obliged to subdivide his force; and Lord HENRY Seymour, 
with forty of the best Dutch and English
was employed in blockading the hostile ports in FLANDERS, 
 preventing THE—PRINCE—OF—Parma from coming out of Dunkirk.
 The orders of KING—PHILIP to THE—DUKE de MEDINA Sidonia were, 
 should, 
on entering the Channel, 
keep near THE—FRENCH coast, 
if
 attacked by THE—ENGLISH ships, 
avoid an ACTION, 
steer on to Calais
 roads, 
where THE—PRINCE—OF—Parma's squadron was to join him, 
The hope of
 surprising and destroying THE—ENGLISH fleet in Plymouth, 
led the Spanish
 admiral to deviate from these orders, 
to stand across to THE—ENGLISH
 shore, 
on finding that Lord Howard was coming out to meet him,
 he resumed the original plan, 
determined to bend his way steadily
 towards Calais and Dunkirk, 
to keep merely on the defensive against
 such squadrons of THE—ENGLISH as might come up with him.
 It was on Saturday, 
the 20th of July, 
that Lord EffINGHAM came in sight
 of his formidable adversaries, 
The Armada was drawn up in form of a
 crescent, 
which from horn to horn measured some seven miles, 
There was
 a south-west wind, 
 and before it the vast vessels sailed slowly on, 
 English let them pass by, 
following in the rear, 
commenced
 an attack on them, 
A running fight now took place, 
in which some of
 the best ships of THE—SPANIARDS were captured, 
 many more received heavy
 damage, 
 while THE—ENGLISH vessels, 
which took care not to close with
 their huge antagonists, 
but availed themselves of their superior
 celerity in tacking and manoeuvring, 
suffered little comparative loss.
 Each day added not only to the spirit, 
but to the number of EffINGHAM's
 force, 
Raleigh, 
Oxford, 
Cumberland, 
Sheffield joined him, 
 and "the
 gentlemen of ENGLAND hired ships from all parts at their own charge, 
 with one accord came flocking thither as to a set field, 
where glory
 was to be attained, 
faithful service performed unto their prince and
 their country."
 Raleigh justly praises THE—ENGLISH admiral for his skilful tactics, 
 says, 
[HISTORIE—of THE—WORLD—PAGE—791] 
"Certainly, 
he that will happily
 perform a fight at sea, 
must be skillful in making choice of vessels
 to fight in, 
 he must believe that there is more belonging to a good
 man-of-war, 
upon the waters, 
than great daring, 
 and must know that there
 is a great deal of difference between fighting loose or at large and
 grappling, 
The guns of a slow ship pierce as well, 
make as
 great holes, 
as those in a swift, 
To clap ships together, 
 consideration, 
belongs rather to a madman than to a man of war, 
 for by
 such an ignorant bravery was PETER Strossie lost at the Azores, 
 he fought against THE—MARQUIS of SANTA—CRUZa, 
In like sort had the Lord
 CHARLES Howard, 
admiral of ENGLAND, 
been lost 
15880000             —J—IM, 
if he
 had not been better advised, 
than a great many malignant fools were,
 that found fault with his demeanour, 
THE—SPANIARDS had an army aboard
he had none, 
 they had more ships than he had, 
of higher
 building and charging, 
had he entangled himself with those
 great and powerful vessels, 
he had greatly endangered this kingdom of
twenty men upon the defences are equal to a hundred
 that board and enter, 
 whereas then, 
contrariwise, 
THE—SPANIARDS had
 a hundred, 
for twenty of ours, 
to defend themselves withall, 
But our
 admiral knew his advantage, 
held it: which had he not done, 
he had
 not been worthy to have held his head."
 The Spanish admiral also showed great judgment and firmness in following
 the line of conduct that had been traced out for him, 
 and on the 27th of
.;;07;;he brought his fleet unbroken, 
though sorely distressed, 
to anchor
 in Calais roads, 
But the —KING—OF—Spain, 
had calculated ill the number
 and activity of THE—ENGLISH and Dutch fleets, 
 as the old historian
 expresses it, 
"It seemeth that THE—DUKE—OF—Parma and THE—SPANIARDS
 grounded upon a vain and presumptuous expectation, 
that all the ships of
 ENGLAND and of the Low Countreys would at the 1, 
sight of the Spanish
 and Dunkerk navie have betaken themselves to flight, 
yeelding them
 sea-room, 
endeavouring only to defend themselves, 
their havens, 
 sea-coasts from —INVASÃON, 
Wherefore their intent and purpose was, 
in his small and flat-bottomed ships should, 
as it
under the shadow and wing of the Spanish fleet, 
convey over all
 his troupes, 
warlike provisions, 
with their forces so
 united, 
should invade ENGLAND, 
 or, 
while THE—ENGLISH fleet were busied
 in FIGHT—AGAINST—the Spanish, 
should enter upon any part of the coast
 which he thought to be most convenient, 
Which —INVASÃON (as the captives
 afterwards confessed) THE—DUKE—OF—Parma thought 1, 
to have attempted
 by the river of Thames, 
 upon THE—BANKs whereof, 
having at the 1.
 arrivall landed twenty or thirty thousand of his principall souldiers,
 he supposed that he might easily have wonne the citie of LONDON; both because his small shippes should have followed and assisted
 his land-forces, 
also for that the citie itselfe was but meanely
 fortified and easie to overcome, 
by reason of the citizens' delicacie
 and discontinuance from THE—WARres, 
with continuall and constant
 labour, 
might be vanquished, 
if they yielded not at the 1, 
assault."
[Hakluyt's Voyages, 
VOLUME—I, 
601]
 But THE—ENGLISH and Dutch found ships and mariners enough to keep
 the Armada itself in check, 
—TIME—AT—THE—SAME to block up Parma's
The greater part of Seymour's squadron left its cruising
 ground off Dunkirk to join THE—ENGLISH admiral off Calais, 
 but the Dutch
 manned about 5-and-thirty sail of good ships, 
with a strong force of
 soldiers on board, 
all well seasoned to the sea-service, 
with these
 they blockaded THE—FLEMISH ports that were in Parma's power, 
Still
 it was resolved by the Spanish admiral and the prince to endeavour to
 effect a junction, 
which THE—ENGLISH seamen were equally resolute to
 prevent: and bolder measures on our side now became necessary.
 The Armada lay off Calais, 
with its largest ships ranged outside, 
"like
 strong CASTLES fearing no assault, 
 the lesser placed in the middle
 ward." THE—ENGLISH admiral could not attack them in their position
 without great disadvantage, 
but on the night of the 29th he sent
 8 fire-ships among them, 
with almost equal effect to that of the
 fire-ships which THE—GREEKS so often employed against the Turkish fleets
 in their late WAR—OF—independence, 
THE—SPANIARDS cut their cables
 and put to sea in confusion, 
One of the largest galeasses ran foul of
 another vessel and was stranded, 
The rest of the fleet was scattered
 about on THE—FLEMISH coast, 
when the morning broke, 
it was with
 difficulty and delay that they obeyed their admiral's signal to range
 themselves round him near Gravelines, 
Now was the golden opportunity
 for THE—ENGLISH to assail them, 
prevent them from ever letting loose
 Parma's flotilla against ENGLAND, 
 and nobly was that opportunity used.
 Drake and Fenner were the 1, 
English captains who attacked the
 unwieldy leviathans: then came Fenton, 
Southwell, 
Burton, 
Cross, 
Raynor,
 and then the lord admiral, 
with Lord THOMAS Howard and Lord Sheffield.
 THE—SPANIARDS only thought of forming and keeping close together, 
 were driven by THE—ENGLISH past Dunkirk, 
far away from the Prince
 of Parma, 
who in watching their defeat from the coast, 
must, 
as Drake
have chafed like a bear robbed of her whelps, 
 indeed the last and the decisive battle between the two fleets, 
It is,
best described in the very words of the contemporary writer as
 we may read them in Hakluyt, 
[VOLUME—I—PAGE—602]
 "Upon the 29th of.;;07;;in the morning, 
the Spanish fleet after the
 forsayd tumult, 
having arranged themselves againe into order, 
were,
 within sight of Greveling, 
most bravely and furiously encountered by
 where they once AGAIN got the wind of THE—SPANIARDS, 
 who
 suffered themselves to be deprived of the commodity of the place in
 Calais road, 
of the advantage of the wind neer unto Dunkerk,
 rather than they would change their array or separate their forces now
 conjoyned and united together, 
standing only upon their defence.
 "And howbeit there were many excellent and warlike ships in THE—ENGLISH
yet scarce were there 22 or 23 among them all, 
which matched 90
 of the Spanish ships in the bigness, 
or could conveniently assault them.
 Wherefore THE—ENGLISH ships using their prerogative of nimble steerage,
 whereby they could turn and wield themselves with the wind which way
 they listed, 
came often times very near upon THE—SPANIARDS, 
charged
 them so sore, 
that now and then they were but a pike's length asunder:
 and so continually giving them one broadside after another, 
 discharged all their shot both great and small upon them, 
spending one
 whole day from morning till night in that violent kind of KONFLIKT,
 untill such time as powder and bullets failed them, 
In regard of which
 want they thought it convenient not to pursue THE—SPANIARDS any longer,
 because they had many great vantages of THE—ENGLISH, 
for the
 extraordinary bigness of their ships, 
also for that they were so
 neerley conjoyned, 
kept together in so good array, 
 could by no meanes be fought withall one to one, 
THE—ENGLISH thought,
that they had right well acquitted themselves, 
in chasing the
 Spaniards 1, 
from Caleis, 
then from Dunkerk, 
by that meanes
 to have hindered them from joyning with THE—DUKE—OF—Parma his forces,
 and getting the wind of them, 
to have driven them from their own coasts.
 "THE—SPANIARDS that day sustained great loss and damage, 
having many of
 their shippes shot thorow and thorow, 
they discharged likewise great
 store of ordinance against THE—ENGLISH, 
sustained some
 hindrance, 
but not comparable to the Spaniard's loss: for they lost not
 any one ship or person of account, 
for very diligent inquisition being
 made, 
THE—ENGLISH men all that time wherein the Spanish navy sayled
 upon their seas, 
are not found to have wanted aboue one hundred of their
 people: albeit Sir FRANCIS—DRAKE's ship was pierced with shot above
 forty times, 
his very cabben was twice shot thorow, 
about the
 conclusion of the fight, 
the bed of a certaine gentleman, 
lying weary
 THEREUPON, 
was taken quite from under him with the force of a bullet.
 Likewise, 
as the Earle of Northumberland and Sir CHARLES Blunt were
 at dinner upon a time, 
the bullet of a demy-culverin brake thorow the
 middest of their cabben, 
touched their feet, 
strooke downe two of
 the standers by, 
with many such accidents befalling THE—ENGLISH shippes,
 which it were tedious to rehearse."
 It reflects little credit on THE—ENGLISHGOVERNMENT that THE—ENGLISH
 fleet was so deficiently supplied with ammunition, 
as to be unable to
 complete the destruction of the invaders, 
But enough was done to ensure
Many of the largest Spanish ships were sunk or captured in the
 ACTION of THIS—DAY, 
at length the Spanish admiral, 
despairing of
 success, 
fled northward with a southerly wind, 
in the hope of rounding
 Scotland, 
so returning to SPAIN without a farther encounter with the
 English fleet, 
Lord EffINGHAM left a squadron to continue the blockade
 of THE—PRINCE—OF—Parma's armament, 
 but that wise general soon
 withdrew his troops to more promising fields of ACTION, 
Meanwhile the
 lord-admiral himself and Drake chased the vincible Armada, 
as it was now
 termed, 
for some distance northward, 
when it seemed to bend
 away from the Scotch coast towards Norway, 
it was thought best, 
 words of Drake, 
"to leave them to those boisterous and uncouth northern
 seas."
 The sufferings and losses which the unhappy Spaniards sustained in their
 flight round Scotland and IRELAND, 
are well known, 
Of their whole Armada
 only fifty-3 shattered vessels brought back their beaten and wasted
 crews to the Spanish coast which they had quitted in such pageantry and
 pride.
 Some passages from the writings of those who took part —IN—THE—struggle,
 have been ALREADY quoted, 
 and the most spirited description of the
 DEFEAT—OF—the Armada which ever was penned, 
may perhaps be taken from
 the letter which our brave VICE—admiral Drake wrote in answer to some
 mendacious stories by which THE—SPANIARDS strove to hide their shame.
 Thus does he describe the scenes in which he played so important a part:
[See Strypo, 
the notes to the Life of Drake, 
in the "Biographia
 Britannica."]
 "They were not ashamed to publish, 
in sundry languages in print, 
great
 victories in words, 
which they pretended to have obtained against
 this realm, 
spread the same in a most false sort over all parts of
elsewhere, 
SHORTLY—AFTERwards, 
it was happily
 manifested in very deed to all nations, 
how their navy, 
which they
 termed invincible, 
consisting of one hundred and forty sail of ships,
 not only of their own kingdom, 
but strengthened with the greatest
 argosies, 
PORTUGAL carracks, 
Florentines, 
large hulks of other
were by thirty of her majesty's own ships of war, 
 of our own merchants, 
by the wise, 
valiant, 
advantageous conduct of
 the Lord CHARLES Howard, 
high-admiral of ENGLAND, 
beaten and shuffled
 together even from the Lizard in Cornwall, 
to Portland, 
when they
 shamefully left DON—PEDRO de Valdez with his mighty ship, 
 from Portland
 to Calais, 
where they lost Hugh de Moncado, 
with the galleys of which he
 was captain, 
 and from Calais driven with squibs from their anchors, 
 chased out of the sight of ENGLAND, 
round about Scotland and IRELAND.
 Where, 
for the sympathy of their RELIGION, 
hoping to find succour and
a great part of them were crushed against the rocks,
 and those others that landed, 
being very many in number, 
 notwithstanding, 
broken, 
slain, 
taken, 
 and so sent from village
 to village, 
coupled in halters, 
to be shipped into ENGLAND, 
where her
 majesty, 
of her princely and invincible disposition, 
disdaining to put
 them to death, 
scorning either to retain or to entertain them, 
 were all sent back AGAIN to their countries, 
to witness and recount the
 worthy achievement of their invincible and dreadful navy, 
Of which the
 number of soldiers, 
the fearful burthen of their ships, 
THE—COMMANDERs'
 names of every squadron, 
with all others, 
their magazines of provision
 were put in print, 
as an army and navy irresistible and disdaining
 prevention: with all which their great and terrible ostentation, 
 did not in all their sailing round about ENGLAND so much as sink or take
 one ship, 
bark, 
pinnace, 
or cockboat of ours, 
or even burn so much as
 one sheep-cote on this land."
in which Drake and other high
 officers of the fleet were engaged, 
eagerly sought the place where
 THE—ENGLISH lord-admiral and his captains were standing, 
His name
 was Fleming, 
 he was the master of a Scotch privateer, 
 and he told the
 English officers that he had that morning seen the Spanish Armada off
 the Cornish coast, 
At this exciting information the captains began to
 hurry down to the water, 
there was a shouting for the ship's boats:
 but Drake coolly checked his comrades, 
insisted that the match
 should be played out, 
He said that there was plenty of time both to win
 the game and beat THE—SPANIARDS, 
The best and bravest match that ever
 was scored was resumed accordingly, 
Drake and his friends aimed their
 last bowls with the same steady calculating coolness with which they
 were about to point their guns, 
The winning cast was made, 
 and then they
 went on board and prepared for ACTION, 
with their hearts as light and
 their nerves as firm as they had been on the Hoe BOWLING—GREEN.
 Meanwhile the messengers and signals had been despatched fast and far
 through ENGLAND, 
to warn each town and village that the enemy had come
 at last, 
In every seaport there was instant making ready by land and by
 in every shire and every city there was instant mustering of horse
 and man, 
the transmission
 of the tidings of the Armada's approach, 
the arming of THE—ENGLISH
are magnificently described, 
The progress of the fire-signals
 is depicted in lines which are worthy of comparison with the renowned
 —PASSAGE in the Agamemnon, 
was her fleet, 
 and after warping
 laboriously out of Plymouth harbour against the wind, 
the lord-admiral
 stood westward under easy sail, 
the approach of which was soon announced by Cornish
 fishing-boats, 
the SPAIN of our own days
 is so feeble, 
 to comprehend the full extent of the peril which ENGLAND then ran from
 the power and the ambition of SPAIN, 
We had then no Indian or
 Colonial Empire save the feeble germs of our North American settlements,
Scotland was a separate
 kingdom, 
 and IRELAND was then even a greater source of weakness, 
Queen
 ELIZABETH had found at her accession an encumbered revenue, 
in which the last remnant of our
 possessions in FRANCE had been lost, 
 she had also a formidable pretender
 to her crown, 
whose interests were favoured by all THE—ROMAN—Catholic
 powers, 
 and even some of her subjects were warped by religious bigotry
 to deny her title, 
 true that
             —THE —YEARS of her reign which had passed away before the
 attempted —INVASÃON—OF—1588, 
she had revived the commercial prosperity,
 THE—NATIONAL spirit, 
 resources, 
still seemed
 most scanty, 
 and she had not a single foreign ally, 
After the consolidation of the great kingdoms, 
15000101—15991231    , the balancing system was successfully practised by European statesmen, 
But when PHILIP—II.
 reigned, 
FRANCE had become so miserably weak through her CIVIL—WARs,
 that he had nothing to dread from the rival state, 
which had so long
 curbed his father THE—EMPEROR—CHARLES—V, 
 he had either zealous friends and dependents, 
or weak and divided
Against THE—TURKS he had gained great and glorious successes; and he might look round the continent of Europe without discerning a
 single antagonist of whom he could stand in awe, 
when he acceded
 to the throne, 
was at the zenith of her power, 
The hardihood and spirit
 which the Arragonese, 
the other nations of the
 PENINSULA had acquired
             —DURING centuries of free institutions and
 successful war against the Moors, 
had, 
destroyed the liberties of SPAIN, 
 been done too recently for its full evil to be felt in PHILIP his time, 
 people cannot be debased in a single generation, 
proved THE—TRUTH of the remark, 
that no nation
 is ever so formidable to its neighbours, 
The energy of democratic institutions survives for
 a few generations, 
to it are superadded the decision and certainty
 which are the attributes of government, 
when all its powers are
 directed by a single mind, 
a secret friend to the
 Huguenots), 
 and thus prevent THE—FRENCH—KING from interfering in favour
 of ELISABETH II, 
2000
 of great cast pieces 2600, 
Of muskets and kaleivers, 7.000, 
Of haleberts and partisans, 10,000.
double-canons, culverings and field-pieces for land services.
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE—DEFEAT—OF—THE SPANISH ARMADA, 
1588; AND —BATTLE—OF—BLENHEIM, 
15940000             , 
HENRY—IV, 
of FRANCE conforms to THE—ROMAN—Catholic Church,
 and ends the CIVIL—WARs that had long desolated FRANCE.
15980000             , 
of SPAIN dies, 
leaving a ruined navy and an exhausted
16030000             , 
Death of ELISABETH II, 
The Scotch dynasty of the Stuarts
 succeeds to the throne of ENGLAND.
16190000             , 
Commencement of the Thirty Years' War in GERMANY.
16240000             —1642, 
KARDINAL RICHELIEU is minister of FRANCE, 
He breaks the power
 of the nobility, 
reduces the Huguenots to complete subjection, 
 and by
 aiding THE—PROTESTANT German princes in the latter part of the Thirty
 Years' War, 
he humiliates FRANCE's ancient rival, 
AUSTRIA.
16300000             , 
Gustavus ADOLPHus, 
—KING—OF—Sweden, 
marches into GERMANY to the
 assistance of THE—PROTESTANTs, 
who ware nearly crushed by the AUSTRIAn
He gains several great victories, 
Sweden,
 under his statesmen and generals, 
continues to take a leading part in
 THE—WAR.
16400000             , 
PORTUGAL throws off the Spanish yoke: and THE—HOUSE of BRAGAnza
 begins tO—REIgn.
16420000             , 
Commencement of the CIVIL—WAR in ENGLAND between CHARLES—I, 
 his parliament.
16480000             , 
The Thirty Years' War in GERMANY ended by THE—TREATY of
 Westphalia.
16530000             , 
OLIVER—CROMWELL lord-protector of ENGLAND.
16600000             , 
Restoration of the Stuarts to THE—ENGLISH throne.
16610000             , 
LOUIS—XIV, 
takes the administration of affairs in FRANCE into his
 own hands.
16670000             —1668, 
LOUIS—XVI, 
makes war in SPAIN, 
conquers a large part of
 the Spanish NETHERLANDs.
16720000             , 
Louis makes war upon HOLLAND, 
almost overpowers it, 
CHARLES
of ENGLAND is his pensioner, 
ENGLAND helps THE—FRENCH in their
 attacks upon HOLLAND until 1674, 
Heroic resistance of the Dutch under
 THE—PRINCE—OF—Orange.
16740000             , 
Louis conquers Franche-Comte.
16790000             , 
PEACE—OF—Nimeguen.
16810000             , 
LOUIS—Invades and occupies ALSACE.
16820000             , 
Accession of PETER the Great to the throne of Russia.
16850000             , 
Louis commences a merciless persecution of his Protestant
 subjects.
16880000             , 
The glorious REVOLUTION—IN—ENGLAND, 
Expulsion of JAMES—II, 
 of Orange is made —KING—OF—England, 
James takes refuge at THE—FRENCH
 court, 
Louis undertakes to restore him, 
GENERAL war IN—THE—WEST of
16910000             , 
TREATY—OF—RYSWICK, 
CHARLES XII, 
becomes —KING—OF—Sweden.
17000000             , 
CHARLES—II, 
having bequeathed his dominions to
 PHILIP of ANJOU, 
LOUIS—XIV.'s grandson, 
DEFEAT—OF—THE—RUSSIANS at Narva,
 by CHARLES XII.
17010000             , 
WILLIAM—III, 
forms a "Grand Alliance" of AUSTRIA, 
THE—EMPIRE, 
 United Provinces, 
ENGLAND, 
other powers, 
against FRANCE.
17020000             , 
King William dies, 
 but his successor, 
Queen Anne, 
adheres to the
 Grand Alliance, 
war is proclaimed against FRANCE.
 CHAPTER—XI, 
-- —BATTLE—OF—BLENHEIM, 
 "The decisive blow struck at Blenheim resounded through every
 part of Europe:  it at once destroyed the vast fabric of power
 which it had taken LOUIS—XIV., 
aided by the talents of MARESCHAL—DE—TURENNE,
 and THE—GENIUS—OF—Vauban, 
so long to construct."--ALISON.
 Though more slowly moulded and less imposingly vast than THE—EMPIRE of
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
the power which LOUIS—XIV, 
had acquired and was acquiring at
 the commencement of the eighteenth century, 
was almost equally menacing
 to the general liberties of Europe, 
If tested by the amount of permanent
 aggrandisement which each procured for FRANCE, 
the ambition of the royal
 BOURBON was more successful than were the enterprises of the imperial
 Corsican, 
All the provinces that NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE conquered, 
were rent AGAIN
 from FRANCE within twenty years from the date when the very earliest of
 them was acquired, 
FRANCE is not stronger by a single city or a single
 acre for all the devastating wars of the KONSULate and THE—EMPIRE, 
 she still possesses Franche-Comte, 
ALSACE, 
part of FLANDERS, 
She has
 still the extended boundaries which LOUIS—XIV, 
gave her, 
the royal
 Spanish marriages, 
a few YEARS—AGO, 
proved clearly how enduring has
 been the political influence which the arts and arms of FRANCE's "Grand
 Monarque" obtained for her southward of THE—PYRENEES.
 When LOUIS—XIV, 
took the reins of government into his own hands,
 after the death of KARDINAL MAZARIN, 
there was a UNION—OF—ability with
such as FRANCE had not seen since THE—DAYs of Charlemagne.
 Moreover, 
Louis's career was no brief one, 
For upwards of forty years,
 for a period nearly equal to the duration of Charlemagne's reign, 
Louis
 steadily followed an aggressive and a generally successful policy, 
 passed a long youth and manhood of triumph, 
before THE—MILITARY genius
 of Marlborough made him acquainted with humiliation and defeat, 
 great BOURBON lived too long, 
He should not have outstayed our two
 English kings--one his dependent, 
JAMES—II., 
the other his antagonist,
 WILLIAM—III, 
Had he died —J—IM, within which they died, 
his reign
 would be cited as unequalled IN—THE—FRENCH annals for its prosperity.
 But he lived on to see his armies beaten, 
his cities captured, 
 kingdom wasted by disastroUS—WAR, 
It is as if Charlemagne had survived
 to be defeated by the Northmen, 
to witness the misery and shame that
 actually fell to the lot of his descendants.
had forty years of success, 
 and from the permanence of
 their fruits we may judge what the results would have been if the last
 fifteen years of his reign had been equally fortunate, 
Had it not been
 for Blenheim, 
all Europe might at THIS—DAY suffer under the effect of
 French conquests resembling those of ALEXANDER in extent, 
those of
 THE—ROMANs in durability.
began to govern, 
he found all THE—MATERIALs for a
 strong government ready to his hand, 
RICHELIEU had completely tamed the
 turbulent spirit of THE—FRENCH nobility, 
had subverted the "imperium
 in imperio" of the Huguenots, 
The faction of the Frondeurs in MAZARIN's
 time had had the effect of making the Parisian parliament utterly
 hateful and contemptible in the eyes of the nation, 
The assemblies of
 THE—STATEs-GENERAL were obsolete, 
THE—ROYAL—authority alone remained.
 The King was THE—STATE, 
Louis knew his position, 
He fearlessly avowed
he fearlessly acted up to it, 
["Quand LOUIS—XIV, 
dit, 
'L'etat,
 c'est moi:' il n'y eut dans cette parole ni enflure, 
ni vanterie, 
mais
 la simple enonciation d'un fait."--MICHELET, 
HISTOIRE MODERNE VOLUME—II.
106]
 Not only was his government a strong one, 
but THE—COUNTRY which he
 governed was strong: strong in its geographical —SITUATION, 
 compactness of its territory, 
in the number and martial spirit of its
 inhabitants, 
in their complete and undivided nationality, 
Louis had
 neither a Hungary nor an IRELAND in his dominions, 
it was not till
 late in his reign, 
when old age had made his bigotry more gloomy, 
 had given fanaticism the mastery over prudence, 
that his persecuting
 intolerance caused the CIVIL—WAR in the Cevennes.
 Like NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE in after-times, 
saw clearly that the great
 wants of FRANCE were "ships, 
colonies, 
commerce." But Louis did
 more than see these wants: by the aid of his great minister, 
Colbert, 
 supplied them, 
One of the surest proofs of THE—GENIUS—OF—Louis was his
 skill in finding out genius in others, 
his promptness in calling it
 into ACTION, 
Under him, 
Louvois organized, 
Turenne, 
Conde, 
VILLARS and
 BERWICK, 
led the armies of FRANCE, 
 and Vauban fortified her frontiers.
 —THROUGHOUT his reign, 
French diplomacy was marked by skilfulness
 and activity, 
also by comprehensive far-sightedness, 
such as the
 representatives of no other nation possessed, 
Guizot's testimony to
 the vigour that was displayed through every branch of LOUIS—XIV.'s
 government, 
to the extent to which FRANCE at present is indebted to
is remarkable, 
He says, 
"taking THE—PUBLIC services of every
 kind, 
the finances, 
THE—DEPARTMENTs of roads and public works, 
 MILITARY administration, 
all the establishments which belong to
 every branch of administration, 
there is not one that will not be found
 to have had its origin, 
its development, 
or its greatest perfection,
 under THE—REIGN—OF—LOUIS—XIV." 
[HISTORY—OF—European Civilization,
 Lecture 13] 
And he points out to us, 
that "THE—GOVERNMENTt of LOUIS—XIV.
 was the 1, 
that presented itself to the eyes of Europe as a power
 acting upon sure grounds, 
which had not to dispute its existence with
 inward enemies, 
but was at ease as to its territory and its people, 
 solely occupied with the task of administering government, 
properly so
 called, 
All THE—EUropean governments had been previously thrown into
 incessant wars, 
which deprived them of all security as well as of all
 leisure, 
or so harassed by internal parties or antagonists, 
 time was passed in fighting for existence, 
THE—GOVERNMENTt of LOUIS—XIV.
to appear as a busy thriving administration of affairs,
 as a power at once definitive and progressive, 
which was not afraid to
 innovate, 
because it could reckon securely on THE—FUTURE, 
There have
 been in fact very few governments equally innovating, 
Compare it with
 a government of the same nature, 
the unmixed monarchy of PHILIP—II., 
 it was more absolute than that of LOUIS—XIV., 
yet it was far
 less regular and tranquil, 
How did PHILIP—II., 
succeed in establishing
 absolute power in SPAIN? By stifling all activity in THE—COUNTRY,
 opposing himself to every species of amelioration, 
rendering the
 state of SPAIN completely stagnant, 
THE—GOVERNMENTt of LOUIS—XIV., 
exhibited alacrity for all sorts of innovations, 
showed
 itself favourable to the progress of letters, 
arts, 
wealth in short,
 of civilization, 
This was the veritable cause of its preponderance
 in Europe, 
which arose to such a pitch, 
that it became the type of
 a government not only to sovereigns, 
but also to nations, 
 17. century."
 While FRANCE was thus strong and united in herself, 
ruled by a
 martial, 
an ambitious, 
(with all his faults) an enlightened and
 high-spirited sovereign, 
what European power was there fit to cope with
or keep her in check?
 "As to GERMANY, 
the ambitious projects of THE—GERMAN—branch of AUSTRIA
 had been entirely defeated, 
the PEACE—OF—THE—EMPIRE had been restored,
 and almost a new constitution formed, 
or an old revived, 
by the treaties
 NAY, 
THE—IMPERIAL—EAGLE WAS NOT ONLY FALLEN, 
BUT HER
 WINGS WERE CLIPPED." 
[Bolingbroke, 
VOLUME—II—PAGE—378, 
Lord Bolingbroke's
 "Letters on THE—USE—OF—History," and his "Sketch of the History
 and State of Europe," abound with remarks on LOUIS—XIV, 
 contemporaries, 
of which the substance is as sound as the style is
 beautiful, 
Unfortunately, 
like all his other works, 
they contain also
 a large proportion of sophistry and misrepresentation, 
The best test
 to use before we adopt any opinion or assertion of Bolingbroke's, 
 to consider whether in writing it he was thinking either of Sir Robert
 Walpole or of Revealed RELIGION, 
When either of these objects of his
 hatred was before his mind, 
he scrupled at no artifice or exaggeration
 might serve the purpose of his malignity, 
On most other occasions
 he may be followed with advantage, 
as he always may be read with
 pleasure]
 "As to SPAIN, 
the Spanish branch of the AUSTRIAn house had sunk equally
 low, 
left his successors a ruined monarchy, 
He left them
 something worse, 
 he left them his example and his principles of
FOUNDED—IN,ambition, 
in pride, 
in ignorance, 
in bigotry, 
 all the pedantry of state." 
VOLUME—II—PAGE—378]
 It is not, 
to be wondered at, 
that FRANCE, 
war
 of LOUIS—XIV., 
despised the opposition of both branches of the once
 predominant house of AUSTRIA, 
in GERMANY THE—FRENCH—KING
 acquired allies among the princes of THE—EMPIRE against THE—EMPEROR
He had a still stronger support in AUSTRIA's misgovernment of
 her own subjects, 
The words of Bolingbroke on this are remarkable, 
 and some of them sound as if written within the last 3—YEARS.
 Bolingbroke says, 
             —THEN "It was not merely the want of cordial co-operation among the princes of THE—EMPIRE that disabled THE—EMPEROR—from acting with vigour in the cause of his family , 
nor that has rendered the
 house of AUSTRIA a dead weight upon all her allies ever since, 
Bigotry,
 and its inseparable companion, 
cruelty, 
as well as the tyranny
 and avarice of THE—COURT—OF—Vienna, 
created in those days, 
has
 maintained in ours, 
almost a perpetual diversion of THE—IMPERIAL—arms
 from all effectual opposition to FRANCE, 
I MEAN TO SPEAK OF THE TROUBLES
 IN HUNGARY, 
WHATEVER THEY BECAME IN THEIR PROGRESS, 
THEY WERE CAUSED
 ORIGINALLY BY THE—USERPATIONS AND PERSECUTIONS OF THE—EMPEROR, 
 AND WHEN
 THE HUNGARIANS WERE CALLED REBELS 1., 
THEY WERE CALLED SO FOR NO
 OTHER REASON THAN THIS, 
THAT THEY WOULD NOT BE SLAVES, 
The dominion of THE—EMPEROR being less supportable than that of THE—TURKS, 
this unhappy people opened a door to the latter to infest THE—EMPIRE, 
instead of
 making their country, 
what it had been before, 
a barrier against the
 Ottoman power, 
FRANCE became a sure though secret ally of THE—TURKS, 
 well as the Hungarians, 
has found her account in it, 
by keeping
 THE—EMPEROR in perpetual alarms on that side, 
while she has ravaged the
 Empire and THE—LOW—COUNTRIES on the other." 
 397]
 If, 
after having seen the imbecility of GERMANY and SPAIN against the
 FRANCE of LOUIS—XIV., 
we turn to the two only remaining European powers
 of any importance AT—THAT—TIME, 
to ENGLAND and to HOLLAND, 
we find the
 position of our own country as to European politics, 
from 1660 to 1688,
 most painful to contemplate, 
From 1660 to 1688, 
"ENGLAND, 
by the return
 of the Stuarts, 
was reduced to a nullity." The words are Michelet's,
[Histoire Moderne, 
p.106] 
and though severe they are just.
 They are, 
not severe enough: for when ENGLAND, 
under her
 restored dynasty of the Stuarts, 
did take any part in European politics,
 her conduct, 
or rather her KING his conduct, 
was almost invariably wicked
 and dishonourable.
 Bolingbroke rightly says that, 
16880000             "previous to THE—REVOLUTION of,
             —DURING—the whole progress that LOUIS—XIV, 
made in obtaining such
 exorbitant power, 
as gave him well-grounded hopes of acquiring at last
 to his family the Spanish monarchy, 
ENGLAND had been either an idle
 spectator of what passed on the continent, 
or a faint and uncertain
 ally against FRANCE, 
or a warm and sure ally on her side, 
or a partial
 mediator between her and the powers confederated together in their
 common defence, 
But though THE—COURT—OF—ENGLAND submitted to abet
 THE—USurpations of FRANCE, 
the —KING—OF—England stooped to be her
 pensioner, 
the crime was not national, 
the nation cried
 out loudly against it even whilst it was being committed." 
[Bolingbroke,
ii p, 
418]
 HOLLAND alone, 
of all THE—EUropean powers, 
opposed from the very
 beginning a steady and uniform resistance to the ambition and power of
 THE—FRENCH—KING, 
It was against HOLLAND that the fiercest attacks of
 FRANCE were made, 
though often apparently on the eve of complete
they were always ultimately baffled by the stubborn bravery of
the heroism of their leader, 
WILLIAM—OF—Orange, 
When he
 became KING—OF—ENGLAND, 
the power of this country was thrown decidedly
 into the scale against FRANCE, 
 but though the contest was thus rendered
 less unequal, 
though William acted —THROUGHOUT "with invincible firmness,
 like a patriot and a hero," 
vol, 
p.404] 
FRANCE
 had the general superiority in every war and in every treaty: and the
 commencement of the eighteenth century found the last league against her
 dissolved, 
all the forces of the confederates against her dispersed, 
 many disbanded, 
 while FRANCE continued armed, 
with her veteran forces
 by sea and land increased, 
held in readiness to act on all sides,
 whenever the opportunity should arise for seizing on the great prizes
from the very beginning of his reign, 
had never been lost sight
 of by her king.
 This is not the place for any narrative of the 1, 
essay which Louis
 XIV, 
made of his power IN—THE—WAR—OF—1667, 
 of his rapid conquest of
 FLANDERS and Franche-Comte, 
 of THE—TREATY—OF—Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 "was nothing more than a composition between the bully and the bullied, 
[Ibid p, 
399] 
of his attack on HOLLAND in 1672, 
 of the districts and
 barrier-towns of the Spanish NETHERLANDs which were secured to him by
 THE—TREATY—OF—Nimeguen in 1678, 
 of how, 
after this treaty, 
he "continued
 to vex both SPAIN and THE—EMPIRE, 
to extend his conquests in the Low
 Countries and on the Rhine, 
both by the pen and the sword, 
 how he took
 LUXEMBOURG by force, 
stole Strasburg, 
bought Casal, 
" of how the
 LEAGUE—OF—AUGSBURG was formed against him in 1686, 
the —ELECTION of
 WILLIAM—OF—Orange to THE—ENGLISH throne in 1688, 
gave a new spirit to
 the opposition which FRANCE encountered, 
 of the long and chequered war
 that followed, 
in which THE—FRENCH armies were generally victorious
 on the continent, 
though his fleet was beaten at La Hogue, 
 dependent, 
JAMES—II,, 
was defeated at the Boyne, 
or of THE—TREATY of
 RYSWICK, 
which left FRANCE in possession of Roussillon, 
Artois, 
 Strasburg, 
which gave Europe no security against her claims on the
 Spanish succession, 
which Louis regarded as a mere truce, 
to gain
 breathing-time before a more decisive struggle, 
It must be borne in
 mind that the ambition of LOUIS—In these wars was twofold, 
It had its
 immediate and its ulterior objects, 
Its immediate object was to conquer
 and annex to FRANCE the neighbouring provinces and towns that were most
 convenient for the increase of her strength, 
 but the ulterior object of
 Louis, 
from the time of his marriage to the Spanish Infanta in 1659, 
 to acquire for THE—HOUSE of BOURBON the whole empire of SPAIN, 
A formal
 renunciation of all right to the Spanish succession had been made at the
 time of the marriage, 
 but such renunciations were never of any practical
 effect, 
many casuists and jurists of THE—AGE even held them to be
 intrinsically void, 
as time passed on, 
the prospect of CHARLES—II.
 of SPAIN dying without lineal heirs became more and more certain, 
so did
 the claims of THE—HOUSE of BOURBON to the Spanish crown after his death
 become matters of urgent interest to French ambition on the one hand,
 and to the other powers of Europe on the other, 
At length the unhappy
 —KING—OF—Spain died, 
By his will he appointed PHILIP, 
Duke of ANJOU, 
 of LOUIS—XIV.'s grandsons, 
to succeed him on the throne of SPAIN, 
 strictly forbade any partition of his dominions, 
Louis well knew that a
 general European war would follow if he accepted for his house the crown
 thus bequeathed, 
But he had been preparing for this crisis —THROUGHOUT
 his reign, 
He sent his grandson into SPAIN as KING—PHILIP V, 
of that
addressing to him on his departure the memorable words, 
"There
 are no longer any Pyrenees."
 THE—EMPIRE, 
which now received the grandson of Louis as its king,
 comprised, 
besides SPAIN itself, 
the strongest part of THE—NETHERLANDS,
 Sardinia, 
the principality of MILAN, 
 possessions in ITALY, 
the PHILIPPines and Marilla Islands in Asia, 
and,
 in the New World, 
besides California and FLORIDA the greatest part of
 Central and of Southern America, 
PHILIP was well received in MADRID,
 where he was crowned as KING—PHILIP V, 
in—THE—BEGINNING—OF 1701, 
 distant portions of his empire sent in their adhesion, 
 and THE—HOUSE of
 BOURBON, 
either by its French or Spanish troops, 
now had occupation both
 of THE—KINGDOM—OF— FRANCIS—I., 
of the fairest and amplest portion of
 THE—EMPIRE of the great rival of FRANCIS, 
CHARLES—V.
 Loud was the wrath of AUSTRIA, 
whose princes were the rival claimants of
 the BOURBONs for THE—EMPIRE of SPAIN, 
The indignation of William
 III., 
though not equally loud, 
was far more deep and energetic, 
By
 his exertions a league against THE—HOUSE of BOURBON was formed between
HOLLAND, 
the AUSTRIAn Emperor, 
which was subsequently
 joined by THE—KINGS—OF—PORTUGAL and Prussia, 
by THE—DUKE—OF—Savoy, 
 by Denmark, 
the alarm —THROUGHOUT Europe was now general and
 urgent, 
It was clear that Louis aimed a consolidating FRANCE and the
 Spanish dominions into one preponderating empire, 
At the moment when
 PHILIP was departing to take possession of SPAIN, 
Louis had issued
 letters-patent in his favour to the effect of preserving his rights to
 the throne of FRANCE, 
Louis had himself obtained possession of
 the important frontier of the Spanish NETHERLANDs, 
with its numerous
 fortified cities, 
which were given up to his troops under pretence of
 securing them for the young —KING—OF—Spain, 
Whether the formal union of
 the two crowns was likely to take place speedily or not, 
it was evident
 that the resources of the whole Spanish monarchy were now virtually at
 THE—FRENCH—KING his disposal.
 The peril that seemed to menace THE—EMPIRE, 
 the other independent powers, 
is well summed up by Alison: "SPAIN had
 threatened the liberties of Europe in the end of the 
15000101—15991231    ,
 FRANCE had all but overthrown them in the close of the 17..
 What hope was there of their being able to make head against them both,
 united under such a monarch as LOUIS—XIV.?" 
[Military HISTORY—OF—the
 DUKE—OF—Marlborough—PAGE—32]
 Our knowledge of the decayed state into which the Spanish power had
 fallen, 
ought not to make us regard their alarms as chimerical, 
SPAIN
 possessed enormous resources, 
her strength was capable of being
 regenerated by a vigorous ruler, 
We should remember what Alberoni
 effected, 
even after the close of THE—WAR—OF—Succession, 
By what that
 minister did in a few years, 
we may judge what LOUIS—XIV, 
 done in restoring the maritime and MILITARY—POWER of that great country
 which nature has so largely gifted, 
which man's misgovernment has so
 debased.
 The death of King William on the 8. of March, 
17020000             ,
seemed
 likely to paralyse the league against FRANCE, 
for "notwithstanding the
 ill-success with which he made war generally, 
he was looked upon as the
 sole centre of union that could keep together the great confederacy then
 forming, 
 and how much THE—FRENCH feared from his life, 
had appeared a
 few YEARS—BEFORE, 
in the extravagant and indecent joy they expressed on
 a false report of his death, 
A short time showed how vain the fears of
 some, 
the hopes of others were." 
VOLUME—II—PAGE—445]
 Queen Anne, 
within 3 days after her accession, 
went down to the
 HOUSE—OF—LORDS, 
there declared her resolution to support the
 measures planned by her predecessor, 
who had been "the great support,
 not only of these kingdoms, 
but of all Europe." Anne was married to
 Prince George of Denmark, 
by her accession to THE—ENGLISH throne the
 confederacy against Louis obtained the aid of the troops of Denmark, 
 Anne's strong attachment to one of her female friends led to far
 more important advantages to the ANTI—Gallican confederacy, 
than the
 acquisition of many armies, 
for it gave them MARLBOROUGH as their
 Captain-GENERAL.
 There are few successful commanders on whom Fame has shone so
 unwillingly as upon John CHURCHILL, 
Duke of Marlborough, 
Prince of
 the Holy ROMAN—EMPIRE,--victor of Blenheim, 
Ramilies, 
OUDENARDE, 
 Malplaquet,--captor of LIEGE, 
BONN, 
LIMBURG, 
LANDAU, 
GHENT, 
Bruges,
 Antwerp, 
Ostend, 
Menin, 
Dendermonde, 
Ath, 
LILLE, 
Tourney,
 Mons, 
Douay, 
Aire, 
Bethune, 
Bouchain, 
 who never fought a battle
 that he did not win, 
never besieged a place that he did not take.
 Marlborough's own private character is the cause of this, 
Military glory
 may, 
too often does, 
dazzle both contemporaries and posterity, 
 the crimes as well as the vices of heroes are forgotten, 
But even a few
 stains of personal meanness will dim a soldier's reputation irreparably; and Marlborough's faults were of a peculiarly base and mean order, 
 feelings towards historical personages are in this respect like our
 feelings towards private acquaintances, 
There are actions of that shabby
 nature, 
however much they may be outweighed by a man's good deeds
 on a general estimate of his character, 
we never can feel any cordial
 liking for the person who has been guilty of them, 
with respect to
 THE—DUKE—OF—Marlborough, 
it goes against our feelings to admire the man,
 who owed his 1, 
advancement in life to THE—COURT-favour which he and
 his family acquired through his sister becoming one of the mistresses
 of THE—DUKE—OF—YORK, 
It is repulsive to know that Marlborough laid the
 foundation of his wealth by being the paid lover of one of the fair and
 frail favourites of CHARLES—II, 
His treachery and ingratitude to his
 patron and benefactor, 
stand out in dark relief, 
even in
 that age of thankless perfidy, 
He was almost equally disloyal to his new
King William, 
 and a more un-English act cannot be recorded than
 Godolphin's and Marlborough's betrayal to THE—FRENCH court in 1694 of
 the expedition then designed against Brest, 
an act of treason which
 caused some hundreds of English soldiers and sailors to be helplessly
 slaughtered on the beach in Camaret Bay.
 It is, 
only in his MILITARY career that we have now to consider
 and there are very few generals, 
of either ancient or modern times,
 whose campaigns will bear a comparison with those of Marlborough, 
either
 for the masterly skill with which they were planned, 
or for the bold
 yet prudent energy with which each plan was carried into EXECUTION.
 Marlborough had served while young under MARESCHAL—DE—TURENNE, 
had obtained the
 marked praise of that great tactician, 
It would be difficult, 
indeed,
 to name a single quality which a general ought to have, 
with which
 Marlborough was not eminently gifted, 
What principally attracted the
 notice of contemporaries, 
was the imperturbable evenness of his spirit.
 VOLTAIRE 
[Siecle de Louis Quatorze] 
says of him:--"He had, 
to a degree
 above all other generals of his time, 
that calm courage in the midst of
 tumult, 
that serenity of soul in danger, 
which THE—ENGLISH call a COOL
 HEAD (que LES—ANGLAIS appellant COOL HEAD, 
TETE FROID), 
it was
 perhaps this quality, 
the greatest gift of nature for command, 
 formerly gave THE—ENGLISH so many advantages over THE—FRENCH in the
 plains of Cressy, 
Poictiers, 
Agincourt."
 King William's knowledge of Marlborough's high abilities, 
though he knew
 his faithlessness equally well, 
is said to have caused that sovereign
 in his last illness to recommend Marlborough to his successor as the
 fittest person to command her armies: but Marlborough's favour with
 the new queen by means of his oo was so high, 
that he was certain of
 obtaining THE—HIGHest employment: and THE—WAR—AGAINST—Louis opened to
 him a glorious theatre for the display of those MILITARY talents, 
 he had before only had an opportunity of exercising in a subordinate
on far less conspicuous scenes.
 He was not only made captain-general of THE—ENGLISH forces at home and
 abroad, 
but such was the authority of ENGLAND in THE—COUNCIL—OF—the
Marlborough was so skilled in winning golden
 opinions from all whom he met with, 
on his reaching THE—HAGUE, 
 was received with transports of joy by the Dutch, 
it was agreed
 by the heads of that republic, 
the minister of THE—EMPEROR, 
 Marlborough should have THE—CHIEF command of all the allied armies.
 It must indeed, 
in justice to Marlborough, 
be borne in mind, 
that mere
 MILITARY skill was by no means all that was required of him in this
 arduous and invidious station, 
Had it not been for his unrivalled
 patience and sweetness of temper, 
his marvellous ability in
 discerning the character of those with whom he had to act, 
his intuitive
 perception of those who were to be thoroughly trusted, 
of those
 who were to be amused with the mere semblance of respect and
 confidence,--had not Marlborough possessed and employed, 
while at the
 HEAD—OF—the allied armies, 
all the qualifications of a polished courtier
 and a great statesman, 
he never would have led the allied armies to the
 Danube, 
The Confederacy would not have held together for a single year.
 His great political adversary, 
Bolingbroke, 
does him ample justice here.
 Bolingbroke, 
after referring to the loss which King William's death
 seemed to inflict on the cause of THE—ALLIES, 
observes that, 
"By his
 death THE—DUKE—OF—Marlborough was raised to the HEAD—OF—THE—ARMY, 
of the Confederacy, 
 where he, 
a new, 
a private man, 
a subject,
 acquired by merit and by management, 
a more deciding influence, 
 high birth, 
confirmed authority, 
even the crown of GREAT—BRITAIN,
 had given to King William, 
Not only all the parts of that vast machine,
 the Grand Alliance, 
were kept more compact and entire, 
 but a more rapid
 and vigorous motion was given to the whole, 
 and instead of languishing
 and disastroUS—CAMPAIGNs, 
we saw every scene of THE—WAR full of ACTION.
 All those wherein he appeared and many of those wherein he was not then
 an actor, 
but abettor, 
of their ACTION, 
were crowned with the
 most triumphant success.
 "I take with pleasure this opportunity of doing justice to that great
 man, 
whose faults I knew, 
whose virtues I admired, 
 and whose memory, 
 the greatest general and as the greatest minister that our country, 
 perhaps any other, 
has produced, 
I honour." 
 445]
 War, 
was formally declared by THE—ALLIES against FRANCE on the 4th
 of May, 
The principal scenes of its operation were, 
at 1.,
 FLANDERS, 
the Upper Rhine, 
North ITALY, 
Marlborough headed the
 allied troops in FLANDERS
two years of THE—WAR, 
 took some towns from the enemy, 
but nothing decisive occurred, 
Nor did
 any actions of importance take place
             —DURING this period, 
between the
 rival armies in ITALY, 
But in the centre of that line from north to
from the mouth of THE—SCHELDT to the mouth of the Po, 
along which
 THE—WAR was carried on, 
the generals of LOUIS—XIV, 
acquired advantages
 in 1703, 
which threatened one chief MEMBER—OF—the Grand Alliance with
 utter destruction, 
FRANCE had obtained the important assistance of
 Bavaria, 
as her confederate IN—THE—WAR, 
The Elector of this powerful
 German state made himself master of the strong fortress of Ulm, 
 opened a communication with THE—FRENCH armies on the Upper Rhine, 
 this junction, 
the troops of Louis were enabled to assail THE—EMPEROR in
 the very heart of GERMANY, 
—AUTUMN—IN—THE, of  
17030000             ,
 combined armies of the Elector and FRENCH—KING completely defeated
 the Imperialists in Bavaria, 
 and in the following winter they made
 themselves masters of the important cities of AUGSBURG and PASSAU.
 Meanwhile THE—FRENCH—ARMY of the Upper Rhine and Moselle had beaten the
 allied armies opposed to them, 
taken Treves and LANDAU, 
At the same
 time the discontents in Hungary with AUSTRIA AGAIN broke out into open
 INSURRECTION, 
so as to distract the attention, 
complete the terror
 of THE—EMPEROR and his council at Vienna.
 LOUIS—XIV, 
ordered the next campaign to be commenced by his troops on
 a scale of grandeur and with a boldness of enterprise, 
such as even
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's MILITARY schemes have seldom equalled, 
On the extreme left of
 the line of THE—WAR, 
IN—THE—NETHERLANDS, 
THE—FRENCH armies were to act
 only on the defensive, 
The fortresses in the hands of THE—FRENCH there,
 were so many and so strong that no serious impression seemed likely to
 be made by THE—ALLIES on THE—FRENCH frontier in that quarter -DURING             
 one campaign, 
 and that one campaign was to give FRANCE such triumphs
 elsewhere as would (it was hoped) determine THE—WAR, 
Large detachments
to be made from THE—FRENCH force in FLANDERS, 
 were to be led by Marshal Villeroy to the Moselle and Upper Rhine, 
 FRENCH—ARMY ALREADY in the neighbourhood of those rivers was to march
 under Marshal Tallard through the Black Forest, 
join the Elector of
 Bavaria and THE—FRENCH troops that were ALREADY with the Elector under
 Marshal Marsin, 
Meanwhile THE—FRENCH—ARMY of ITALY was to advance
 through the Tyrol into AUSTRIA, 
the whole forces were to combine
 between the Danube and the Inn, 
A strong body of troops was to be
 despatched into Hungary, 
to assist and organize THE—INSURGENTS in that
 and THE—FRENCH grand army of the Danube was then, 
in collected
 and irresistible might, 
to march upon Vienna, 
dictate terms of peace
 to THE—EMPEROR, 
High MILITARY genius was shown in the formation of this
 plan, 
but it was met and baffled by a genius higher still.
 Marlborough had watched, 
with the deepest anxiety, 
the progress of the
 French arms on the Rhine and in Bavaria, 
he saw the futility of
 carrying on a WAR—OF—posts and sieges in FLANDERS, 
while death-blows to
 THE—EMPIRE were being dealt on the Danube, 
He resolved therefore to let
 THE—WAR in FLANDERS languish for a year, 
while he moved with all
 the disposable forces that he could collect to THE—CENTRAL scenes
 of decisive operations, 
Such a march was in itself difficult, 
 Marlborough had, 
to overcome the still greater
 difficulty of obtaining the consent and cheerful co-operation of the
 Allies, 
especially of the Dutch, 
whose frontier it was proposed thus
 to deprive of the larger part of the force which had hitherto been its
 protection, 
Fortunately, 
among the many slothful, 
the many foolish, 
 many timid, 
the not few treacherous rulers, 
statesmen, 
generals
 of different nations with whom he had to deal, 
there were two
eminent both in ability and integrity, 
who entered fully into
 Marlborough's projects, 
from the stations which they occupied,
 were enabled materially to forward them, 
One of these was the Dutch
 statesman Heinsius, 
who had been the cordial supporter of King William,
 and who now, 
with equal zeal and good faith, 
supported Marlborough in
 THE—COUNCILs of THE—ALLIES, 
 the other was the celebrated general
 Prince Eugene, 
whom the AUSTRIAn cabinet had recalled from the Italian
 frontier, 
to take the command of one of THE—EMPEROR's armies in GERMANY.
 To these two great men, 
a few more, 
Marlborough communicated his
 plan freely and unreservedly, 
 but to THE—GENERAL—COUNCILs of his allies
 he only disclosed part, 
of his daring scheme, 
He proposed to the Dutch
 that he should march from FLANDERS to the Upper Rhine and Moselle, 
 THE—BRITISH troops and part of the Foreign auxiliaries, 
commence
 vigorous operations against THE—FRENCH armies in that quarter,
 whilst GENERAL Auverquerque, 
with the Dutch and THE—REMAINDER of the
 auxiliaries, 
maintained a defensive war IN—THE—NETHERLANDS, 
Having with
 difficulty obtained the consent of the Dutch to this portion of his
 project, 
he exercised the same diplomatic zeal, 
with the same success,
 in urging the —KING—OF—Prussia, 
other princes of THE—EMPIRE, 
 increase the number of the troops which they supplied, 
to post them
 in places convenient for his own intended movements.
 Marlborough commenced his celebrated march on the 19th of May, 
which he was to lead, 
had been assembled by his brother, 
GENERAL
 CHURCHILL, 
at Bedburg, 
not far from Maestricht on THE—MEUSE: it included
 sixteen thousand English troops, 
consisted of fifty-one battalions
ninety-two squadrons of horse, 
Marlborough was to collect
 and join with him on his march the troops of Prussia, 
Luneburg, 
 Hesse, 
quartered on the Rhine, 
eleven Dutch battalions that were
 stationed at Rothweil, 
[Coxe's Life of Marlborough] 
He had only
 marched a single day, 
when the series of interruptions, 
complaints, 
 requisitions from the other leaders of THE—ALLIES began, 
to which he
 seemed doomed —THROUGHOUT his enterprise, 
which would have caused
 its failure in the hands of any one not gifted with the firmness and the
 exquisite temper of Marlborough, 
One specimen of these annoyances and of
 Marlborough's mode of dealing with them may suffice, 
On his encamping
 at Kupen, 
on the 20th, 
he received an express from Auverquerque
 pressing him to halt, 
because Villeroy, 
who commanded THE—FRENCH—ARMY
 in FLANDERS, 
had quitted the lines, 
which he had been occupying, 
 crossed THE—MEUSE at NAMUR with thirty-6 battalions and forty-5
was threatening THE—TOWN—OF—Huys, 
 Marlborough received letters from the Margrave of BADEN and Count
 Wratislaw, 
who commanded the Imperialist forces at Stollhoffen near the
 left bank of the Rhine, 
stating that Tallard had made a movement, 
 intending to cross the Rhine, 
urging him to hasten his march
 towards the lines of Stollhoffen, 
Marlborough was not diverted by these
 applications from the prosecution of his grand design, 
Conscious that
 THE—ARMY of Villeroy would be too much reduced to undertake offensive
 operations, 
by the detachments which had ALREADY been made towards the
those which must follow his own march, 
he halted only a day
 to quiet the alarms of Auverquerque, 
To satisfy also the margrave he
 ordered the troops of HOMPESCH and Bulow to draw towards Philipsburg,
 though with private injunctions not to proceed beyond a certain
 distance, 
He even exacted a promise to the same effect from Count
who at this juncture arrived at the camp to attend him -DURING             
 the whole campaign, 
[Coxe]
 Marlborough reached the Rhine at Coblentz, 
where he crossed that river,
 and then marched along its right bank to Broubach and Mentz, 
His march,
 though rapid, 
was admirably conducted, 
so as to save the troops from all
 unnecessary fatigue, 
 ample supplies of provisions were ready, 
 most perfect discipline was maintained, 
By degrees Marlborough obtained
 more reinforcements from the Dutch and the other confederates, 
 also was left more at liberty by them to follow his own course, 
Indeed,
 before even a blow was struck, 
his enterprise had paralysed the enemy,
 and had materially relieved AUSTRIA from the pressure of THE—WAR.
 Villeroy, 
with his detachments from THE—FRENCH-FLEMISH army, 
 completely bewildered by Marlborough's movements, 
unable to divine
 where it was that THE—ENGLISH general meant to strike his blow, 
wasted
 away the —EARLY, part of —THE—SUMMER between FLANDERS and the Moselle
 without effecting anything, 
["Marshal Villeroy," says VOLTAIRE, 
"who had
 wished to follow Marlborough on his 1, 
marches, 
suddenly lost sight
 of him altogether, 
and only learned where he really was, 
on hearing of
 his VICTORY—AT—Donauwert."--SIECLE DE LOUIS—XIV]
 Marshal Tallard, 
who commanded forty-5 thousand men at Strasburg, 
 who had been destined by Louis to march —EARLY, —J—IM, into Bavaria,
 thought that Marlborough's march along the Rhine was preliminary to
 an attack upon ALSACE, 
 and the marshal therefore kept his 45.000—MEN back in order to support FRANCE in that quarter.
 Marlborough skilfully encouraged his apprehensions by causing a bridge
 to be constructed ACROSS—THE—RHINE at Philipsburg, 
and by making the
 Landgrave of Hesse advance his artillery at Manheim, 
as if for a
 siege of LANDAU, 
Meanwhile the Elector of Bavaria and Marshal Marsin,
 suspecting that Marlborough's design might be what it really proved
 to be, 
forbore to press upon the AUSTRIAns opposed to them, 
or to
 send troops into Hungary, 
 and they kept back so as to secure their
 communications with FRANCE, 
when Marlborough, 
at—THE—BEGINNING—OF
 June, 
left the Rhine and marched for the Danube, 
the numerous hostile
 armies were uncombined, 
and unable to check him.
 "With such skill and science had this enterprise been concerted, 
that at
 the very moment when it assumed a specific direction, 
the enemy was no
 longer enabled to render it abortive, 
As the march was now to be bent
 towards the Danube, 
notice was given for THE—PRUSSIANS, 
Palatines, 
 Hessians, 
who were stationed on the Rhine, 
to order their march so as
 to join the main body in its progress, 
—TIME—AT—THE—SAME directions
 were sent to accelerate the advance of the Danish auxiliaries, 
 marching from THE—NETHERLANDS." 
 Crossing the river Neckar, 
Marlborough marched in a south-eastern
 direction to Mundelshene, 
where he had his 1, 
personal interview with
who was destined to be his colleague on so many glorious
 fields, 
Thence, 
through a difficult and dangerous country, 
Marlborough
 continued his march against THE—BAVARIANs, 
whom he encountered on the 2d
 of July, 
on the heights of the Schullenberg near Donauwert, 
 stormed their entrenched camp, 
crossed the Danube, 
took several strong
 places in Bavaria, 
and made himself completely master of the Elector's
 dominions, 
except the fortified cities of Munich and AUGSBURG, 
 Elector's army, 
though defeated at Donauwert, 
was still numerous and
 and at last Marshal Tallard, 
when thoroughly apprised of the
 real nature of Marlborough's movements, 
crossed the Rhine, 
 suffered through the supineness of THE—GERMAN—general at Stollhoffen,
 to march without loss through the Black Forest, 
and united his powerful
 army at Biberach near AUGSBURG, 
with that of the Elector and THE—FRENCH
 troops under Marshal Marsin, 
who had previously been co-operating with
 THE—BAVARIANs, 
Marlborough re-crossed the Danube, 
;;0811             —ON—THE, his army with the Imperialist forces under
The combined armies occupied a position near Hochstadt,
 a little higher up the left bank of the Danube than Donauwert, 
the scene
 of Marlborough's recent victory, 
and almost exactly on the ground where
 Marshal VILLARS and the Elector had defeated an AUSTRIA—ARMY in the
 preceding year, 
THE—FRENCH marshals and the Elector were now in position
 a little farther to THE—EAST, 
between Blenheim and Lutzingen, 
 with the little stream of the Nebel between them and the troops of
 Marlborough and Eugene, 
The Gallo-Bavarian army consisted of about sixty
and they had sixty-one pieces of artillery, 
"THE—ARMY of
 THE—ALLIES was about fifty-6 thousand strong, 
with fifty-two guns." 
[A
 short time before THE—WAR—OF—the Succession the musquet and bayonet
 had been made the arms of all THE—FRENCH infantry, 
It had formerly been
 usual to mingle pike-men with musqueteers, 
The other European nations
 followed the example of FRANCE, 
and the weapons used at Blenheim were
 substantially the same as those still employed]
 Although THE—FRENCH—ARMY of ITALY had been unable to penetrate into
 AUSTRIA, 
and although the masterly strategy of Marlborough had hitherto
 warded off the destruction with which the cause of THE—ALLIES seemed
 menaced at—THE—BEGINNING—OF THE—CAMPAIGN, 
the peril was still most
 serious, 
It was absolutely necessary for Marlborough to attack the
before Villeroy should be roused into ACTION, 
There was nothing
 to stop that general and his army from marching into Franconia, 
 THE—ALLIES drew their principal supplies, 
 and besides thus distressing
he might, 
by marching on and joining his army to those of Tallard
 and the Elector, 
form a mass which would overwhelm the force under
the chances of a battle
 seemed perilous, 
and the fatal consequences of a defeat were certain.
 The inferiority of THE—ALLIES in point of number was not very great, 
 still it was not to be disregarded, 
 and the advantage which the enemy
 seemed to have in the composition of their troops was striking, 
Tallard
 and Marsin had forty-5 thousand Frenchmen under them, 
all veterans,
 and all trained to act together: the Elector's own troops also were good
Marlborough, 
like WELLINGTON at Waterloo, 
headed an army, 
 which the larger proportion consisted not of English, 
but of men of many
 different nations, 
and many different languages, 
He was also obliged
 to be the assailant in the ACTION, 
and thus to expose his troops to
 comparatively heavy loss at the commencement of the battle, 
while the
 enemy would fight under THE—PROTECTION—OF—the villages and lines which
 they were actively engaged in strengthening, 
The consequences of a
 DEFEAT—OF—the confederated army must have broken up the Grand Alliance,
 and realised the proudest hopes of THE—FRENCH—KING, 
Mister Alison, 
 admirable MILITARY HISTORY—OF—THE—DUKE—OF—Marlborough, 
has truly stated
 the effects which would have taken place if FRANCE had been successful
 IN—THE—WAR, 
when the position of the Confederates —AT—THE—TIME—WHEN
 Blenheim was fought is remembered, 
 when we recollect the exhaustion of
the menacing INSURRECTION OF—HUNGARY, 
the feuds and jealousies
 of THE—GERMAN—princes, 
the strength and activity of the JACOBite party
 in ENGLAND, 
the imbecility of nearly all the Dutch statesmen of the
and the weakness of HOLLAND if deprived of her allies, 
we may
 adopt his words in speculating on what would have ensued, 
if FRANCE
 had been victorious in the battle, 
and "if a power, 
animated by the
 ambition, 
guided by the fanaticism and directed by the ability of that
had gained the ascendancy in Europe, 
Beyond all question,
 a universal despotic dominion would have been established over the
a cruel spiritual thraldom over the minds of men, 
FRANCE and
 SPAIN united under BOURBON princes, 
and in a close family alliance--the
 empire of Charlemagne with that of CHARLES—V.--the power which revolted
 the EDICT—OF—NANTES, 
and perpetrated the —MASSACRE—OF—St, 
Bartholomew,
 with that which banished the Moriscoes, 
and established THE—INQUISITION,
 would have proved irresistible, 
and beyond example destructive to the
 best interests of mankind.
 "THE—PROTESTANTs might have been driven, 
like the Pagan heathens of old
 by the son of Pepin, 
beyond the ELBE, 
 the Stuart race, 
and with them
 Romish, 
ascendancy, 
might have been re-established in ENGLAND, 
 the fire
 lighted by Latimer and Ridley might have been extinguished in blood, 
 the energy breathed by RELIGIOUS—FREEDOM into the ANGLO—SAXON race
 might have expired, 
The destinies of THE—WORLD would have been changed.
instead of a variety of independent states, 
whose mutual,
 hostility kept alive courage, 
while their national rivalry stimulated
 talent, 
would have sunk into the slumber attendant on universal
 dominion, 
The colonial empire of ENGLAND would have withered away and
as that of SPAIN has done in the grasp of THE—INQUISITION, 
 ANGLO—SAXON race would have been arrested in its mission to overspread
 the earth and subdue it, 
THE—CENTRALised despotism of THE—ROMAN—EMPIRE
 would have been renewed on Continental Europe, 
 the chains of Romish
 tyranny, 
and with them the general infidelity of FRANCE before the
 REVOLUTION, 
would have extinguished or perverted thought in THE—BRITISH
 islands." 
[Alison's Life of Marlborough—PAGE—248]
 Marlborough's words at THE—COUNCIL—OF—war, 
when a battle was resolved
 on, 
are remarkable, 
and they deserve recording, 
We know them on the
 authority of his chaplain, 
Mister (afterwards Bishop) Hare, 
who accompanied
 him —THROUGHOUT THE—CAMPAIGN, 
and in whose journal the biographers of
 Marlborough have found many of their best materials, 
Marborough's words
 to the officers who remonstrated with him on the seeming temerity of
 attacking the enemy in their position, 
were--"I know THE—DANGER, 
yet a
 battle is absolutely necessary, 
 and I rely on the bravery and discipline
 of the troops, 
which will make amends for our disadvantages." In the
 evening orders were issued for a general engagement, 
and received by the
 army with an alacrity which justified his confidence.
 THE—FRENCH and Bavarians were posted behind a little stream called the
 Nebel, 
which runs almost from north to south into the Danube immediately
 in front of THE—VILLAGE—OF—Blenheim, 
The Nebel flows along a little
 valley, 
and THE—FRENCH occupied the rising ground to THE—WEST of it.
 THE—VILLAGE—OF—Blenheim was the extreme right of their position, 
and the
 village of Lutzingen, 
about 3 miles north of Blenheim, 
formed their
 left, 
Beyond Lutzingen are the rugged high grounds of the Godd Berg, 
 Eich Berg, 
on the skirts of which some detachments were posted so as to
 secure the Gallo-Bavarian position from being turned on the left flank.
 The Danube protected their right flank, 
 and it was only in front that
 they could be attacked, 
The villages of Blenheim and Lutzingen had been
 strongly palisadoed and entrenched, 
Marshal Tallard, 
who held THE—CHIEF
took his station at Blenheim: Prince MAXIMILIAN the Elector,
 and Marshal Marsin commanded on the left, 
Tallard garrisoned Blenheim
 with 26 battalions of French infantry, 
and twelve squadrons
 of French cavalry, 
Marsin and the Elector had twenty-two battalions of
and thirty-6 squadrons of cavalry in front of the village of
 Lutzingen, 
The centre was occupied by fourteen battalions of infantry,
 including the celebrated Irish Brigade, 
These were posted in the little
 HAMLET—OF—Oberglau, 
which lies somewhat nearer to Lutzingen than to
 Blenheim, 
Eighty squadrons of cavalry and seven battalions of foot were
 ranged between Oberglau and Blenheim, 
Thus THE—FRENCH position was very
 strong at each extremity, 
but was comparatively weak in the centre.
 Tallard seems to have relied on the swampy state of the part of the
 valley that reaches from below Oberglau to Blenheim, 
for preventing any
 serious attack on this part of his line.
 THE—ARMY of THE—ALLIES was formed into two great divisions: the largest
 being commanded by THE—DUKE in person, 
and being destined to act against
 Tallard, 
whiLE—PRINCE Eugene led the other division, 
which consisted
 chiefly of cavalry, 
and was intended to oppose the enemy under Marsin
As they approached the enemy, 
Marlborough's troops
 formed the left and the centre, 
while Eugene's formed the right of the
 entire army, 
Early in the morning of the 13th of August, 
THE—ALLIES left
 their own camp and marched towards the enemy, 
A thick haze covered the
and it was not until the allied right and centre had advanced
 nearly within cannon-shot of the enemy that Tallard was aware of their
 approach, 
He made his preparations with what haste he could, 
and about
 8 o'clock a heavy fire of artillery was opened from THE—FRENCH right
 on the advancing left wing of THE—BRITISH, 
Marlborough ordered up some
 of his batteries to reply to it, 
and while the columns that were to form
 the allied left and centre deployed, 
and took up their proper stations
 in the line, 
a warm cannonade was kept up by the guns on both sides.
 The ground which Eugene's columns had to traverse was peculiarly
especially for the —PASSAGE of the artillery, 
 and it was
 nearly mid-DAY—BEFORE he could get his troops into line opposite to
Marlborough ordered divine service to
 be performed by the chaplains at the HEAD—OF—each regiment, 
 rode along the lines, 
and found both officers and men IN—THE—HIGHest
 spirits, 
and waiting impatiently for the signal for the the attack, 
At
 length an aide-de-camp galloped up from the right with the welcome news
 that Eugene was ready, 
Marlborough instantly sent Lord Cutts, 
 strong brigade of infantry, 
to assault THE—VILLAGE—OF—Blenheim, 
while he
 himself led the main body down THE—EASTward slope of the valley of the
and prepared to effect the —PASSAGE of the stream.
 The —ASSAULT—ON—Blenheim, 
though bravely made, 
was repulsed with severe
 loss, 
 and Marlborough, 
finding how strongly that village was garrisoned,
 desisted from any further attempts to carry it, 
and bent all his
 energies to breaking the enemy's line between Blenheim and Oberglau.
 Some temporary bridges had been prepared, 
and planks and fascinas had
 been collected, 
 and by the aid of these and a little stone bridge which
 crossed the Nebel, 
near a hamlet called Unterglau, 
that lay in the
 centre of the valley, 
Marlborough succeeded in getting several squadrons
 across the Nebel, 
though it was divided into several branches, 
 ground between them was soft, 
and in places, 
little better than a mere
 marsh, 
But THE—FRENCH artillery was not idle, 
The cannon balls plunged
 incessantly among the advancing squadrons of THE—ALLIES, 
 and bodies of
 French cavalry rode frequently down from THE—WESTern ridge, 
to charge
 them before they had time to form on the firm ground, 
It was only by
 supporting his men by fresh troops, 
and by bringing up infantry, 
 checked the advance of the enemy's horse by their steady fire, 
 Marlborough was able to save his army in this quarter from a repulse,
following the failure of the attack upon Blenheim, 
would probably
 have been fatal to THE—ALLIES, 
By degrees, 
his cavalry struggled over
 the blood-stained streams, 
 the infantry were also now brought across, 
 as to keep in check THE—FRENCH troops who held Blenheim, 
and who, 
 no longer assailed in front, 
had begun to attack THE—ALLIES on their
 left with considerable effect.
 Marlborough had thus at last succeeded in drawing up the whole left wing
 of his army beyond the Nebel, 
and was about to press forward with it,
 when he was called away to another part of the field by a disaster that
 had befallen his centre, 
THE—PRINCE—OF—HOLSTEIN-Beck had, 
with eleven
 Hanoverian battalions, 
passed the Nebel opposite to Oberglau, 
when he
 was charged and utterly routed by the Irish brigade which held that
 village, 
The Irish drove the Hanoverians back with heavy slaughter,
 broke completely through the line of THE—ALLIES, 
and nearly achieved a
 success as brilliant as that which the same brigade afterwards gained
 at Fontenoy, 
But at Blenheim their ardour in pursuit led them too far.
 Marlborough came up in person, 
and dashed in upon their exposed flank
 with some squadrons of British cavalry, 
The Irish reeled back, 
and as
 they strove to regain the height of Oberglau, 
their column was raked
 through and through by the fire of 3 battalions of THE—ALLIES,
 which Marlborough had summoned up from the reserve, 
Marlborough having
 re-established the order and communication of THE—ALLIES in this
as he returned to his own left wing, 
sent to learn how his
 colleague fared against Marsin and the Elector, 
and to inform Eugene of
 his own success.
 Eugene had hitherto not been equally fortunate, 
He had made 3
 attacks on the enemy opposed to him, 
and had been thrice driven back.
 It was only by his own desperate personal exertions, 
and the remarkable
 steadiness of THE—REGIMEnts of PREUSSEN—infantry which were under him,
 that he was able to save his wing from being totally defeated, 
 it was on the southern part of the battle-field, 
on the ground which
 Marlborough had won beyond the Nebel with such difficulty, 
 crisis of the battle was to be decided.
 Like HANNIBAL, 
Marlborough relied principally on his cavalry for
 achieving his decisive successes, 
and it was by his cavalry that
the greatest of his victories, 
was won, 
The battle had lasted
 till 5 in the afternoon, 
Marlborough had now 8 thousand horseman
 drawn up in two lines, 
and in the most perfect order for a general
 attack on the enemy's line along the space between Blenheim and
 Oberglau, 
The infantry was drawn up in battalions in their rear, 
so as
 to support them if repulsed, 
and to keep in check the large masses of
 THE—FRENCH that still occupied THE—VILLAGE—OF—Blenheim, 
Tallard now
 interlaced his squadrons of cavalry with battalions of infantry, 
 Marlborough by a corresponding movement, 
brought several regiments of
and some pieces of artillery, 
to his front line, 
at intervals
 between the bodies of horse, 
A little after 5, 
Marlborough commenced
 the decisive movement, 
and the allied cavalry, 
strengthened and
 supported by foot and guns, 
advanced slowly from the lower ground near
 the Nebel up the slope to where THE—FRENCH cavalry, 
ten thousand strong,
 awaited them, 
On riding over the summit of the acclivity, 
THE—ALLIES
 were received with so hot a fire from THE—FRENCH artillery and small
that at 1, 
the cavalry recoiled, 
but without abandoning the
 high ground, 
The guns and the infantry which they had brought with them,
 maintained the contest with spirit and effect, 
THE—FRENCH fire seemed
 to slacken Marlborough instantly ordered a charge along the line, 
 allied cavalry galloped forward at the enemy's squadrons, 
and the hearts
 of THE—FRENCH horseman failed them, 
Discharging their carbines at an
 idle distance, 
they wheeled round and spurred from the field, 
leaving
 the nine infantry battalions of their comrades to be ridden down by
 the torrent of the allied cavalry, 
The battle was now won, 
Tallard and
 Marsin, 
severed from each other, 
thought only of retreat, 
Tallard drew
 up the squadrons of horse which he had left in a line extended towards
and sent orders to the infantry in that village to leave and
 join him without delay, 
But long ere his orders could be obeyed,
 the conquering squadrons of Marlborough had wheeled to the left and
 thundered down on the feeble army of THE—FRENCH marshal, 
Part of the
 force which Tallard had drawn up for this last effort was driven into
 part fled with their general to THE—VILLAGE—OF—Sonderheim,
 where they were soon surrounded by the victorioUS—ALLIES, 
and compelled
 to surrender, 
Meanwhile, 
Eugene had renewed his attack upon the
 Gallo-Bavarian left, 
and Marsin, 
finding his colleague utterly routed,
 and his own right flank uncovered, 
prepared to retreat, 
He and the
 Elector succeeded in withdrawing a considerable part of their troops
 in tolerable order to Dillingen, 
 but the large body of French
 who garrisoned Blenheim were left exposed to certain destruction.
 Marlborough speedily occupied all the outlets from the village with
 his victorious troops, 
and then, 
collecting his artillery round it, 
 commenced a cannonade that speedily would have destroyed Blenheim itself
 and all who were in it, 
After several gallant but unsuccessful attempts
 to cut their way through THE—ALLIES, 
THE—FRENCH in Blenheim were at
 length compelled to surrender at discretion, 
 and twenty-four battalions,
 and twelve squadrons, 
with all their officers, 
laid down their arms, 
 became the captives of Marlborough.
 "Such," says VOLTAIRE, 
"was the celebrated battle, 
which THE—FRENCH call
 —BATTLE—OF—Hochstet, 
THE—GERMANS Plentheim, 
and THE—ENGLISH Blenheim,
 The conquerors had about 5 thousand killed, 
and 8 thousand
 wounded, 
the greater part being on the side of Prince Eugene, 
 army was almost entirely destroyed: of sixty thousand men, 
so long
there never reassembled more than twenty thousand effective.
 About twelve thousand killed, 
fourteen thousand prisoners, 
 cannon, 
a prodigious number of colours and standards, 
all the tents
 and equipages, 
the general of THE—ARMY, 
and one thousand two hundred
 officers of MARK, 
in the power of the conqueror, 
signalised that day!"
 Ulm, 
Treves, 
and Traerbach surrendered to THE—ALLIES before the
 close of  
Bavaria submitted to THE—EMPEROR, 
and the Hungarians
 laid down their arms, 
GERMANY was completely delivered from FRANCE; and THE—MILITARY ascendancy of the arms of THE—ALLIES was completely
 established, 
Throughout the rest of THE—WAR Louis fought only in
Blenheim had dissipated for ever his once proud visions of
 almost universal conquest.
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN —BATTLE—OF—BLENHEIM, 
AND THE BATTLE
 OF PULTOWA, 
17050000             , 
THE—ARCH—DUKE—CHARLES lands in SPAIN with a small English army
 under Lord PETERborough, 
who takes BARCELONA.
17060000             , 
Marlborough's VICTORY—AT—Ramilies.
17070000             , 
THE—ENGLISH army in SPAIN is defeated at —BATTLE—OF—Almanza.
17080000             , 
Marlborough's VICTORY—AT—OUDENARDE.
 CHAPTER—XII, 
-- —BATTLE—OF—PULTOWA, 
 "Dread Pultowa's day,
 When fortune left THE—ROYAL—Swede,
 Around a slaughtered army lay,
 No more to combat and to bleed.
 The power and fortune of THE—WAR
 Had passed to the triumphant Czar."--BYRON.
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE prophesied at St, 
Helena, 
that all Europe would soon be either
 Cossack or Republican, 
4—YEARS—AGO, 
the fulfilment of the last of
 these alternatives appeared most probable, 
But the DEMOCRATIC—MOVEMENTs
 of 1848 were sternly repressed in 1849, 
The absolute authority of
 a single ruler, 
and the austere stillness of martial law, 
are now
 paramount in the capitals of the continent, 
which lately owned no
 sovereignty save the will of the multitude, 
 and where that which the
 democrat calls his sacred right of INSURRECTION, 
was so loudly asserted
 and so often fiercely enforced, 
Many causes have contributed to bring
 about this reaction, 
but the most effective and the most permanent have
 been Russian influence and Russian arms, 
Russia is now the avowed and
 acknowledged champion of Monarchy against Democracy, 
--of constituted
however acquired, 
against REVOLUTION and change for whatever
 purpose desired, 
--of THE—IMPERIAL—supremacy of strong states over their
 weaker neighbours against all claims for political independence, 
 all striving for separate nationality, 
She has crushed the heroic
 and AUSTRIA, 
for whom nominally she crushed them, 
is now one
 of her dependents, 
Whether the rumours of her being about to engage
 in fresh enterprises be well or ill FOUNDED, 
it is certain that recent
 events must have fearfully augmented the power of the Muscovite empire,
even previously, 
had been the object of well-FOUNDED anxiety to
 all Western Europe.
and conquers a large part of
and almost overpowers it, 
and ENGLAND helps THE—FRENCH in their
and Louis undertakes to restore him, 
and other powers, 
and war is proclaimed against FRANCE.
and part of FLANDERS, 
and his
and to witness the misery and shame that
and those of
and had subverted the "imperium
and he fearlessly acted up to it, 
and in their complete and undivided nationality, 
and it was not till
and commerce." But Louis did
and his promptness in calling it
and also by comprehensive far-sightedness, 
and to the extent to which FRANCE at present is indebted to
and all the establishments which belong to
and yet it was far
and rendering the
and showed
and ruled by a
and (with all his faults) an enlightened and
The words of Bolingbroke on this are remarkable,
"It was not merely the want of cordial co-operation
 among the princes of THE—EMPIRE that disabled THE—EMPEROR from acting
 with vigour in the cause of his family then, 
and has
The dominion of
 THE—EMPEROR being less supportable than that of THE—TURKS, 
this unhappy
 people opened a door to the latter to infest THE—EMPIRE, 
and has found her account in it, 
and the —KING—OF—England stooped to be her
and though often apparently on the eve of complete
and the heroism of their leader, 
and held in readiness to act on all sides,
after this treaty, he "continued
and to extend his conquests in the Low
 Countries and on the Rhineboth by the pen and the sword, 
and bought Casal, 
and the —ELECTION of
and which Louis regarded as a mere truce, 
 but the ulterior object of Louis, 
By his exertions a league against THE—HOUSE of BOURBON was formed between ENGLAND, 
only learned where he really was, 
 and the marshal therefore kept his forty-5
 thousand men back in order to support FRANCE in that quarter.
by making the
unable to check him.
made himself completely master of the Elector's
united his powerful
almost exactly on the ground where
they had sixty-one pieces of artillery, 
the weapons used at Blenheim were
although the masterly strategy of Marlborough had hitherto
the fatal consequences of a defeat were certain.
many different languages, 
thus to expose his troops to
the weakness of HOLLAND if deprived of her allies, 
"if a power, 
in a close family alliance--the
perpetrated the —MASSACRE—OF—St, 
established THE—INQUISITION,
beyond example destructive to the
with them
with them the general infidelity of FRANCE before the
they deserve recording, 
in whose journal the biographers of
received by the
THE—FRENCH occupied the rising ground to THE—WEST of it.
twelve squadrons
thirty-6 squadrons of cavalry in front of the village of
being destined to act against
was intended to oppose the enemy under Marsin
it was not until the allied right and centre had advanced
about
while the columns that were to form
took up their proper stations
found both officers and men IN—THE—HIGHest
waiting impatiently for the signal for the the attack, 
prepared to effect the —PASSAGE of the stream.
bent all his
planks and fascinas had
in places, 
by bringing up infantry, 
was about to press forward with it,
nearly achieved a
dashed in upon their exposed flank
to inform Eugene of
had been thrice driven back.
the remarkable
it was by his cavalry that
in the most perfect order for a general
to keep in check the large masses of
some pieces of artillery, 
the allied cavalry, 
the hearts
sent orders to the infantry in that village to leave and
compelled
Marsin, 
THE—ENGLISH Blenheim,
eight thousand
one thousand two hundred
Traerbach surrendered to THE—ALLIES before the
the Hungarians
THE BATTLE
the austere stillness of martial law, 
 It was truly stated, 
twelve YEARS—AGO, 
that "the acquisitions which
 Russia has made within the 
[then] 
last sixty-four years, 
are equal in
 extent and importance to the whole empire she had in Europe before that
 that the acquisitions she had made from Sweden are greater than
 what remains of that ancient kingdom, 
 that her acquisitions from Poland
 are as large as the whole AUSTRIAn empire, 
 that THE—TERRITORY she has
 wrested from TURKEY in Europe is equal to the dominions of Prussia,
 exclusive of her Rhenish provinces, 
 and that her acquisitions from
 TURKEY in Asia are equal in extent to all the smaller states of GERMANY,
 the Rhenish provinces of Prussia, 
BELGIUM, 
HOLLAND taken together; that THE—COUNTRY she has conquered from PERSIA is about the size of
 that her acquisitions in Tartary have an area equal to TURKEY
In sixty-four years she has
 advanced her frontier 8 hundred and fifty miles towards Vienna,
 BERLIN, 
DRESDEN, 
Munich, 
PARIS, 
 she has approached 4 hundred and
 fifty miles nearer to Constantinople, 
 she has possessed herself of the
 capital of Poland, 
has advanced to within a few miles of the capital
 of Sweden, 
from which, 
when PETER the Great mounted the throne, 
 frontier was distant 3 hundred miles, 
Since that time she has
 stretched herself forward about one thousand miles towards India, 
 the same distance towards the capital of PERSIA." 
[Progress of Russia in
 THE—EAST—PAGE—142]
 Such, 
at that period, 
had been the recent aggrandisement of Russia, 
 THE—EVENTs of the last few years, 
by weakening and disuniting all
 her European neighbours, 
have immeasurably augmented the relative
 superiority of the Muscovite empire over all the other continental
 powers.
 With a population exceeding sixty millions, 
all implicitly obeying the
 impulse of a single ruling mind, 
 with a territorial area of 6—MILLIONs
 and a half of square miles, 
 with a standing army 8 hundred thousand
 with powerful fleets on the Baltic and Black Seas, 
 with a
 skilful host of diplomatic agents planted in every court, 
among
 every tribe, 
 with the confidence which unexpected success creates, 
 the sagacity which long experience fosters, 
Russia now grasps with an
 armed right hand the tangled thread of European politics, 
issues her
 mandate as the arbitress of the movements of THE—AGE, 
Yet 100—YEARS and
 a half have hardly elapsed since she was 1, 
recognised as a member
 of the drama of modern European history--previously to the —BATTLE—OF
 Pultowa, 
Russia played no part, 
CHARLES—V, 
his great rival our
 ELIZABETH and her adversary PHILIP—OF—SPAIN, 
the GUISEs, 
Sully,
 RICHELIEU, 
Cromwell, 
De Witt, 
the other leading
 spirits of the sixteenth and 17. centuries, 
thought no more
 about the Muscovite Czar than we now think about the —KING—OF—Timbuctoo.
 Even as late as 1735, 
Lord Bollingbroke, 
in his admirable "Letters on
 History," speaks of the HISTORY—OF—the Muscovites, 
as having no relation
 to the knowledge which a practical English statesman ought to acquire.
[Bolingbroke's Works, 
VOLUME—ii—PAGE—374, 
In the same page he observes how
 Sweden had often turned her arms southwards with prodigious effect] 
 may be doubted whether a cabinet council often takes place now in
 our FOREIGN—OFFICE, 
without Russia being uppermost in every English
 statesman's thoughts.
 But though Russia remained thus long unheeded amid her snows, 
 was a northern power, 
the influence of which was acknowledged in the
 principal European quarrels, 
whose good will was sedulously courted
 by many of the boldest chiefs and ablest councillors of the leading
 states, 
This was Sweden, 
 Sweden, 
on whose ruins Russia has risen, 
 whose ascendancy over her semi—barbarous neighbours was complete, 
 the fatal battle that now forms our subject.
 As —EARLY, as 1542 FRANCE had sought the alliance of Sweden to aid her in
 her struggle against CHARLES—V, 
the name of Gustavus ADOLPHus is of
 itself sufficient to remind us, 
that in the great contest for religious
of which GERMANY was for thirty years the arena, 
it was Sweden
 that rescued the falling cause of Protestantism, 
 and it was Sweden that
 principally dictated the remodelling of THE—EUropean state —SYSTEM at the
 PEACE—OF—Westphalia.
 From the proud pre-eminence in which the valour of the "Lion of the
 North" and of Torstenston, 
Bannier, 
Wrangel and the other GENERALs of
 Gustavus, 
guided by the wisdom of Oxenstiern, 
had placed Sweden, 
 DEFEAT—OF—CHARLES XII, 
at Pultowa hurled her down at once and for ever.
 Her efforts
             —DURING—THE—WARs of THE—FRENCH—REVOLUTION to assume a leading
 part in European politics, 
met with instant discomfiture, 
almost
 provoked derision, 
But the Sweden, 
whose sceptre was bequeathed to
 CHRISTINA, 
whose alliance Cromwell valued so highly, 
was a different
 power from the Sweden of the present day, 
Finland, 
Ingria, 
Livonia,
 Esthonia, 
Carelia, 
other districts east of the Baltic, 
then were
 Swedish provinces, 
 and THE—POSSESSION—OF—Pomerania, 
Rugen, 
BREMEN,
 made her an important MEMBER—OF—the Germanic empire, 
These territories
 are now all reft from her, 
 and the most valuable of them form the staple
 of her victorious rival's strength, 
Could she resume them, 
could
 the Sweden of 1648 be reconstructed, 
we should have a 1.-class
 Scandinavian State in the North, 
well qualified to maintain the balance
 of power, 
check the progress of Russia, 
 whose power, 
never
 could have become formidable to Europe, 
save by Sweden becoming weak.
 The decisive triumph of Russia over Sweden at Pultowa was therefore
 all-important to THE—WORLD, 
ON—ACCOUNT—OF—what it overthrew as well as
 for what it established, 
 and it is the more deeply interesting because
 it was not merely the crisis of a struggle between two states, 
 was a trial of strength between two great races of mankind, 
We must bear
 in mind, 
that while the Swedes, 
like THE—ENGLISH, 
the Dutch, 
others,
 belong to the Germanic race, 
THE—RUSSIANS are a Sclavonic people.
 Nations of Sclavonian origin have long occupied the greater part of
 Europe eastward of the Vistula, 
the populations also of Bohemia,
 Croatia, 
Servia, 
Dalmatia, 
other important regions westward of that
 river, 
are Sclavonic, 
In the long and varied KONFLIKTs between them and
 the Germanic nations that adjoin them, 
the Germanic race had, 
before
almost always maintained a superiority, 
With the single
 but important exception of Poland, 
no Sclavonic state had made any
 considerable figure —IN—HISTORY before the time when PETER the Great won
 his great victory over the Swedish king, 
[The Hussite wars may, 
perhaps,
 entitle Bohemia to be distinguished] 
What Russia has done since that
 time we know and we feel, 
some of the wisest and best men of our own
 age and nation, 
who have watched with deepest care the annals and the
 destinies of humanity, 
have believed that the Sclavonic element in the
 population of Europe has as yet only partially developed its powers:
while other races of mankind (our own, 
the Germanic, 
included)
 have exhausted their creative energies, 
completed their allotted
 achievements, 
the Sclavonic race has yet a great career to run: and,
 that the narrative of Sclavonic ascendancy is the remaining page that; will conclude the HISTORY—OF—THE—WORLD, 
[See ARNOLD's Lectures on Modern
 History, 
pp, 
36-39]
 Let it not be supposed that in thus regarding the primary triumph of
 Russia over Sweden as a VICTORY—OF—the Sclavonic over the Germanic
 race, 
we are dealing with matters of mere ethnological pedantry, 
 with themes of mere speculative curiosity, 
The fact that Russia is
 a Sclavonic empire, 
is a fact of immense practical influence at
 the present moment, 
Half THE—INHABITANTS—OF—the AUSTRIAn empire are
 Sclavonian, 
The population of the larger part of TURKEY in Europe is of
 the same race, 
Silesia, 
Posen, 
other parts of the PREUSSEN—dominions
 are principally Sclavonic, 
             —DURING late years an enthusiastic zeal
 for blending all Sclavonians into one great united Sclavonic empire,
 has been growing up in these countries, 
however we may deride its
 principle, 
is not the less real and active, 
of which Russia, 
 the head and champion of the Sclavonic race, 
knows well how to take her
 advantage.
["The idea of Panslavism had a purely literary origin, 
It was started by
 Pollar, 
a Protestant clergyman of the Sclavonic congregation at
 Pesth, 
in Hungary, 
who wished to establish a national literature,
 by circulating all works, 
written in the various Sclavonic dialects,
 through every country where any of them are spoken, 
He suggested, 
 all the Slavonic literati should become acguainted with the sister
 dialects, 
so that a Bohemian, 
or other work, 
might be read on the shores
 of the Adriatic, 
as well as on THE—BANKs of the Volga, 
 place where a Sclavonic language was spoken, 
 by which means an extensive
 literature might be created, 
tending to advance knowledge in all
 Sclavonic countries, 
 and he supported his arguments by observing, 
 the dialects of ancient Greece differed from each other, 
like those of
 his own language, 
yet that they formed only one Hellenic literature.
 The idea of an intellectual UNION—OF—all those nations naturally led to
 that of a political one, 
 and the Sclavonians, 
seeing that their numbers
 amounted to about one-third part of the whole population of Europe, 
 occupied more than half its territory, 
began to be sensible that they
 might claim for themselves a position, 
to which they had not hitherto
 aspired.
 "The opinion gained ground, 
 and the question now is, 
whether the
 Slavonians can form a nation independent of Russia, 
 or whether they
 ought to rest satisfied in being part of one great race, 
with the most
 powerful MEMBER—OF—it as their chief, 
The latter, 
is gaining
 ground amongst them, 
 and some Poles are disposed to attribute their
 sufferings to the arbitrary will of the Czar, 
without extending the
 blame to THE—RUSSIANS themselves, 
These begin to think that, 
if they
 cannot exist as Poles, 
the best thing to be done is to rest satisfied
 with a position —IN—THE—sclavonic empire, 
they hope that, 
when once
 they give up the idea of restoring their country, 
Russia may grant some
 Conçessãons to their separate nationality.
 "The same idea has been put forward by writers in the Russian interest; great efforts are making among other Sclavonic people, 
to induce them
 to look upon Russia as their future head, 
 and she has ALREADY
 gained considerable influence over the Sclavonic populations of
 TURKEY."--WILKINSON'S DALMATIA]
 It is a singular fact that Russia owes her very name to a—BAND—of Swedish invaders who conquered her a thousand YEARS—AGO, 
They were soon
 absorbed —IN—THE—sclavonic population, 
every trace of the Swedish
 character had disappeared in Russia for many centuries before her
 —INVASÃON by CHARLES XII, 
She was long the victim and the slave of the
 Tartars, 
 and for many considerable periods of years the Poles held her
 in subjugation, 
if we except the expeditions of some of
 the —EARLY, Russian chiefs against Byzantium, 
THE—REIGN—OF—Ivan
 Vasilovitch, 
the HISTORY—OF—Russia before the time of PETER the Great is
 one long tale of suffering and degradation.
 But whatever may have been the amount of national injuries that she
 sustained from Swede, 
from Tartar, 
or from Pole in THE—AGEs of her
 weakness, 
she has certainly retaliated ten-fold
             —DURING—THE—CENTURY and
 a half of her strength, 
Her rapid transition at the commencement of that
 period from being the prey of every conqueror to being the conqueror of
 all with whom she COMES into contact, 
to being the oppressor instead of
is almost without a parallel —IN—THE—HISTORY—OF—nations.
 It was the work of a single ruler, 
himself without education,
 promoted science and literature among barbaric millions, 
 who gave them
 fleets, 
commerce, 
arms, 
at Pultowa, 
taught them to face
 and beat the previously invincible Swedes: and who made stubborn valour,
 and implicit subordination, 
from that time forth the distinguishing
 characteristics of the Russian soldiery, 
which had before his time been
 a mere disorderly and irresolute rabble.
 The career of PHILIP of Macedon resembles most nearly that of the great
 Muscovite Czar: but there is this important difference, 
that PHILIP
received in Southern Greece the best education in all
 matters of peace and war that the ablest PHILOSOPHers and generals of
 THE—AGE could bestow, 
PETER was brought up among barbarians, 
 barbaric ignorance, 
He strove to remedy this when a grown man, 
 leaving all the temptations to idleness and sensuality, 
which his court
by seeking instruction abroad, 
He laboured with his own
 hands as a common artisan in HOLLAND and in ENGLAND, 
that he might
 return and teach his subjects how ships, 
civilization
 could be acquired, 
There is a degree of heroism here superior
 to anything that we know of in the Macedonian king, 
But PHILIP's
 consolidation of the long disunited Macedonian empire,--his raising a
 people which he found the scorn of their civilized southern neighbours,
 to be their dread,--his ORGANIZATION of a brave and well-disciplined
instead of a disorderly militia,--his creation of a maritime
his systematic skill in acquiring and improving sea-ports and
 arsenals,--his patient tenacity of purpose under reverses,--his
 personal bravery,--and even his proneness to coarse amusements and
 pleasures,--all MARK him out as the prototype of THE—IMPERIAL—founder of
 the Russian power, 
In justice, 
to THE—ANCIENT hero, 
it ought
 to be added, 
that we find —IN—THE—HISTORY—OF—PHILIP no examples of that
 savage cruelty which deforms so grievously the character of PETER the
 Great.
 In considering the effects of the overthrow which the Swedish arms
 sustained at Pultowa, 
in speculating on the probable consequences
 that would have followed if the invaders had been successful we must not
 only bear in mind the wretched state In which PETER found Russia at his
 accession, 
compared with her present grandeur, 
but we must also keep in
 view the fact, 
AT—THE—TIME when Pultowa was fought, 
his reforms
 were yet incomplete, 
his new institutions immature, 
He had broken
 up the old Russia, 
 and the New Russia, 
which he ultimately created,
 was still in embryo, 
Had he been crushed at Pultowa, 
his mighty schemes
 would have been buried with him, 
 and (to use the words of VOLTAIRE) "the
 most extensive empire IN—THE—WORLD would have relapsed into the chaos
 from which it had been so lately taken." It is this fact that makes the
 repulse of CHARLES XII, 
the critical point in the fortunes of Russia.
 THE—DANGER which she incurred 100—YEARS afterwards from her —INVASÃON by
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE was in reality far less than her peril when CHARLES attacked
 though THE—FRENCH—EMPEROR, 
as a MILITARY genius, 
was infinitely
 superior to the Swedish King, 
led a host against her, 
compared with
 which the armies of CHARLES seem almost insignificant, 
as Fouche
 well warned his imperial master, 
when he vainly endeavoured to dissuade
 him from his disastrous expedition against THE—EMPIRE of the Czars,
 the difference between the Russia of 1812 and the Russia of 1709 was
than the disparity between the power of CHARLES and the might
 of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
"If that heroic king," said Fouche, 
"had not, 
like your
 imperial Majesty, 
half Europe in arms to back him, 
neither had his
 opponent, 
the Czar PETER, 
400,000—SOLDIERS, 
60,000 Cossacks."
 The historians, 
who describe THE—STATE—OF—the Muscovite empire when
 REVOLUTIONary and imperial FRANCE encountered it, 
narrate with truth and
 justice, 
how "at the epoch of THE—FRENCH—REVOLUTION this immense empire,
 comprehending nearly half of Europe and Asia within its dominions,
 inhabited by a patient and indomitable race, 
ever ready to exchange the
 luxury and adventure of the south for the hardships and monotony of the
was daily becoming more formidable to the liberties of Europe.
 The Russian infantry had then long been celebrated for its immoveable
 firmness, 
Her immense population, 
amounting then in Europe alone to
 nearly thirty-5—MILLIONs, 
afforded an inexhaustible supply of men.
 Her soldiers, 
inured to heat and cold from their infancy, 
actuated
 by a blind devotion to their Czar, 
united the steady valour of the
 English to the impetuous energy of THE—FRENCH troops." 
[Alison] 
So,
 also, 
we read how the haughty aggressions of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE "went to excite
 a national feeling, 
from THE—BANKs of the Borysthenes to the wall of
 CHINA, 
to unite against him the wild and uncivilized inhabitants
 of an extended empire, 
possessed by a love to their RELIGION, 
their country, 
having a character of stern devotion,
 which he was incapable of estimating." 
[Scott's Life of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE] 
 the Russia of 1709 had no such forces to oppose to an assailant, 
 whole population then was below sixteen millions, 
what is far more
 important, 
this population had neither acquired MILITARY spirit, 
 strong nationality, 
 nor was it united in loyal attachment to its ruler.
 PETER had wisely abolished the old regular troops of THE—EMPIRE, 
 Strelitzes, 
 but the forces which he had raised in their stead on a new
 and foreign plan, 
principally officered with foreigners, 
 the Swedish —INVASÃON, 
given no proof that they could be relied on, 
 numerous encounters with the Swedes, 
PETER's soldiery had run like sheep
 before inferior numbers, 
Great discontent, 
had been excited among
 all classes of the community by the arbitrary changes which their
 great emperor introduced, 
many of which clashed with the most cherished
 national prejudices of his subjects, 
A career of victory and prosperity
 had NOT—YET raised PETER above the reach of that disaffection, 
nor had
 superstitious obedience to the Czar yet become the characteristic of
 the Muscovite mind, 
The victorious occupation of Moscow by CHARLES XII.
 would have quelled the Russian nation as effectually, 
as had been the
 case when Batou Khan, 
other ancient invaders, 
captured the capital
 of primitive Muscovy, 
How little such a triumph could effect towards
 subduing modern Russia, 
the fate of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE demonstrated at once and
 for ever.
 The character of CHARLES XII, 
has been a favourite theme with
 historians, 
moralists, 
PHILOSOPHers, 
poets, 
But it is his military
 conduct
             —DURING—THE—CAMPAIGN in Russia that alone requires comment here.
in the memoirs dictated by him at St, 
has given us a
 systematic criticism on that, 
among other celebrated campaigns, 
 own Russian campaign included, 
He labours hard to prove that he himself
 observed all the true principles of offensive war: and probably his
 censures of CHARLES's generalship were rather highly coloured, 
 the sake of making his own MILITARY skill stand out in more favourable
 relief, 
after making all allowances, 
we must admit the force of
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's strictures on CHARLES's tactics, 
own that his judgment,
 though severe, 
is correct, 
when he pronounces that the Swedish king,
 unlike his great predecessor Gustavus, 
knew nothing of the art of war,
 and was nothing more than a brave and intrepid soldier, 
 was not the light in which CHARLES was regarded by his contemporaries at
 the commencement of his Russian expedition, 
His numerous victories,
 his daring and resolute spirit, 
combined with THE—ANCIENT renown of the
 Swedish arms, 
then filled all Europe with admiration and anxiety, 
 Johnson expresses it, 
his name was then one at which THE—WORLD grew
 pale, 
Even Louis le Grand earnestly solicited his assistance, 
 and our
 own Marlborough, 
then in the full career of his victories, 
was specially
 sent by THE—ENGLISH court to the camp of CHARLES, 
to propitiate the hero
 of the north in favour of the cause of THE—ALLIES and to prevent the
 Swedish sword from being flung into the scale IN—THE—FRENCH—KING's
But CHARLES AT—THAT—TIME was solely bent on dethroning the
 sovereign of Russia, 
as he had ALREADY dethroned the sovereign of
 Poland, 
all Europe fully believed that he would entirely crush the
 Czar, 
dictate conditions of peace IN—THE—KREMLIN, 
[VOLTAIRE attests,
 from personal inspection of the letters of several public ministers to
 their respective courts, 
that such was the general expectation] 
 himself looked on success as a matter of certainty, 
 and THE—ROMANtic
 extravagance of his views was continually increasing, 
"One year, 
 thought, 
would suffice for the conquest of Russia, 
THE—COURT—OF—Rome
 was next to feel his vengeance, 
as the PAPA had dared to oppose
 the Conçessãon of religious liberty to the Silesian Protestants.
 No enterprise AT—THAT—TIME appeared impossible to him, 
He had even
 dispatched several officers privately into Asia and Egypt, 
to take
 plans of THE—TOWNs, 
examine into the strength and resources of those
 countries." 
[Crighton's SCANDINAVIA[SCANDINAVIEN]]
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE thus epitomises the earlier operations of CHARLES's —INVASÃON of
 Russia:--
 "That prince set out from his camp at Aldstadt, 
near Leipsic, 
             17070900             , 
at the HEAD—OF—46,000—MEN, 
traversed Poland, 
 20,000
under Count Lewenhaupt, 
disembarked at RIGA, 
 and 15,000 were in
 Finland, 
He was therefore in a condition to have brought together 80,000
 of the best troops IN—THE—WORLD, 
He left 10,000—MEN at Warsaw to guard
 King Stanislaus, 
in January 1708, 
arrived at Grodno, 
 wintered, 
In ;;06;; he crossed the forest of Minsk, 
presented himself
 before Borisov, 
 forced the Russian army, 
which occupied the left bank
 of the Beresina, 
 defeated 20,000 Russians who were strongly entrenched
 behind marshes, 
 passed the Borysthenes at Mohiloev, 
vanquished a
 corps of 16,000 Muscovites near SMOLENSKo, 
on the 22d of             ;;09;;, 
 was now advanced to the confines of Lithuania, 
was about to enter
 Russia Proper: the Czar, 
alarmed at his approach, 
made him proposals of
 peace, 
Up to this time all his movements mere conformable to rule, 
 his communications were well secured, 
He was master of Poland and RIGA,
 and only ten days' march distant from Moscow: and it is probable that
 he would have reached that capital, 
had he not quitted THE—HIGH road
directed his steps towards THE—UKRAINE, 
in order to form a
 junction with Mazeppa, 
who brought him only 6,000—MEN, 
By this movement
 his line of operations, 
beginning at Sweden, 
exposed his flank to Russia
 for a distance of 4 hundred leagues, 
he was unable to protect it,
 or to receive either reinforcements or assistance."
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE severely censures this neglect of one of the great rules of
He points out that CHARLES had not organized his war like HANNIBAL,
 on THE—PRINCIPLE of relinquishing all communications with home, 
keeping
 all his forces concentrated, 
creating a base of operations in the
 conquered country, 
Such had been the bold —SYSTEM of the Carthaginian
 but CHARLES acted on no such principle, 
inasmuch as he caused
 Lewenhaupt, 
one of his generals who commanded a considerable detachment,
 and escorted a most important convoy, 
to follow him at a distance
 of twelve days' march, 
By this dislocation of his forces he exposed
 Lewenhaupt to be overwhelmed separately by the full force of the enemy,
 and deprived the troops under his own command of the aid which that
 general's men and stores might have afforded, 
at the very crisis of the
 campaign.
 The Czar had collected an army of about a hundred thousand effective
 and though the Swedes, 
in—THE—BEGINNING—OF the —INVASÃON, 
 successful in every encounter, 
the Russian troops were gradually
 acquiring discipline, 
 and PETER and his officers were learning
 generalship from their victors, 
as the Thebans of old learned it from
 the Spartans, 
When Lewenhaupt, 
in the ;;10;; of 1708, 
was striving to
 join CHARLES—IN—THE—UKRAINE, 
the Czar suddenly attacked him near the
 Borysthenes with an overwhelming force of fifty thousand Russians.
 Lewenhaupt fought bravely for 3 days, 
succeeded in cutting his
 way through the enemy, 
with about 4 thousand of his men, 
to where
 CHARLES awaited him near the river Desna, 
 but upwards of 8 thousand
 Swedes fell in these battles, 
 Lewenhaupt's cannon and ammunition were
 abandoned, 
 and the whole of his important convoy of provisions, 
on which
 CHARLES and his half-starved troops were relying, 
fell into the enemy's
CHARLES was compelled to remain IN—THE—UKRAINE
             —DURING—the winter; but in —THE—SPRING—OF 1709 he moved forward towards Moscow, 
invested
 the fortified TOWN—OF—Pultowa, 
on the river Vorskla, 
a place where the
 Czar had stored up large supplies of provisions and MILITARY stores, 
 which commanded the roads leading towards Moscow, 
THE—POSSESSION—OF—this
 place would have given CHARLES the means of supplying all the wants of
 his suffering army, 
would also have furnished him with a secure base
 of operations for his advance against the Muscovite capital, 
 siege was therefore hotly pressed by the Swedes, 
 the garrison resisted
 obstinately, 
 and the Czar, 
feeling THE—IMPORTANCE of saving THE—TOWN,
 advanced In ;;06;; to its relief, 
at the HEAD—OF—an army from fifty to
 sixty thousand strong.
 Both sovereigns now prepared for the general ACTION, 
which each
 perceived to be inevitable, 
which each felt would be decisive of his
 own and of his country's destiny, 
The Czar, 
by some masterly manoeuvres,
 crossed the Vorskla, 
posted his army on the same side of that river
 with the besiegers, 
but a little higher up, 
The Vorskla falls into the
 Borysthenes about fifteen leagues below Pultowa, 
the Czar arranged
 his forces in two lines, 
stretching from one river towards the other, 
 that if the Swedes attacked him and were repulsed, 
they would be driven
 backwards into the acute angle formed by the two streams at their
 junction, 
He fortified these lines with several redoubts, 
lined with
 heavy artillery, 
 and his troops, 
were in the best
 possible condition, 
amply provided with stores and ammunition.
 CHARLES's forces were about twenty-four thousand strong, 
But not more
 than half of these were Swedes, 
 so much had battle, 
famine, 
fatigue, 
 the deadly frosts of Russia, 
thinned the gallant bands which the Swedish
 king and Lewenhaupt had led to THE—UKRAINE, 
The other twelve thousand
 men under CHARLES were Cossacks and Wallachians, 
who had joined him
 in that country, 
On hearing that the Czar was about to attack him,
 he deemed that his dignity required that he himself should be the
 assailant, 
 and leading his army out of their entrenched lines before the
 town, 
he advanced with them against the Russian redoubts.
 He had been severely wounded in the foot in a skirmish a few days
 and was borne in a litter along the ranks, 
into the thick of the
 fight, 
Notwithstanding the fearful disparity of numbers and disadvantage
 of position, 
the Swedes never showed their ancient valour more nobly
 than on that dreadful day, 
Nor do their Cossack and Wallachian allies
 seem to have been unworthy of fighting side by side with CHARLES's
 veterans, 
Two of the Russian redoubts were actually entered, 
 Swedish infantry began to raise the cry of victory, 
But on the other
neither general nor soldiers flinched in their duty, 
The Russian
 cannonade and musketry were kept up, 
 fresh masses of defenders were
 poured into the fortifications, 
at length the exhausted remnants of
 the Swedish columns recoiled from the blood-stained redoubts, 
Then the
 Czar led the infantry and cavalry of his 1, 
line outside the works,
 drew them up steadily and skilfully, 
the ACTION was renewed along
 the whole fronts of the two armies on the open ground, 
Each sovereign
 exposed his life freely IN—THE—WORLD-winning battle, 
 and on each side
 the troops fought obstinately and eagerly under their ruler's eye.
 It was not till two hours from the commencement of the ACTION that,
 overpowered by numbers, 
the hitherto invincible Swedes gave way, 
All was
 then hopeless disorder and irreparable rout, 
Driven downward to where
 the rivers join, 
the fugitive Swedes surrendered to their victorious
 pursuers, 
or perished in the waters of the Borysthenes, 
Only a few
 hundreds swam that river with their king and the Cossack Mazeppa, 
 escaped into the Turkish territory, 
Nearly ten thousand lay killed and
 wounded in the redoubts and on the field of battle.
 In the joy of his heart the Czar exclaimed, 
when the strife was over,
 "That the son of the morning had fallen from heaven, 
 and that the
 foundations of St, 
PETERsburg at length stood firm." Even on that
near THE—UKRAINE, 
THE—EMPEROR—OF—RUSSIA's 1, 
thoughts
 were of conquests and aggrandisement on the Baltic, 
The peace of
 Nystadt, 
which transferred the fairest provinces of Sweden to Russia,
 ratified the judgment of battle which was pronounced at Pultowa, 
Attacks
 on TURKEY and PERSIA by Russia commenced almost directly after that
 victory, 
though the Czar failed in his 1, 
attempts against
 the Sultan, 
the successors of PETER have, 
carried on an
 uniformly aggressive and uniformly successful —SYSTEM of policy against
 TURKEY, 
against every other state, 
Asiatic as well as European,
 which has had the misfortune of having Russia for a neighbour.
 Orators and authors, 
who have discussed the progress of Russia, 
have
 often alluded to the similitude between the modern extension of the
 Muscovite empire and the extension of THE—ROMAN—dominions in ancient
 times, 
But attention has scarcely been drawn to the closeness of the
 parallel between conquering Russia and conquering ROMe, 
not only in the
 extent of conquests, 
but in the means of effecting conquest, 
The history
 of ROMe
             —DURING—THE 150—YEARS which followed the close of the second PUNIC—WAR, 
             —DURING which her largest acquisitions of territory
 were made, 
should be minutely compared with the HISTORY—OF—Russia for
 the last one hundred and fifty years, 
The main points of similitude
 can only be indicated in these pages, 
 but they deserve the fullest
the sixth CHAPTER—of Montesquieu's great
 Treatise on ROMe, 
THE—CHAPTER—"DE LA CONDUITE QUE LES ROMAINS TINRENT
 POUR SOUMETTRE LES PEUPLES," should be carefully studied by every one
 who watches the career and policy of Russia, 
The classic scholar will
 remember THE—STATE-craft of THE—ROMAN—SENATE, 
which took care in
 every foreign war to appear in the character of a PROTECTOR, 
Thus ROMe
 PROTECTED THE—AETOLIANs, 
the Greek cities, 
against Macedon, 
 PROTECTED Bithynia, 
other small Asiatic states, 
against the SYRIAn
 kings, 
 she protected NUMIDIA against CARTHAGE, 
 and in numerous other
 instances assumed the same specious character, 
"Woe to THE—PEOPLE
 whose liberty depends on the continued forbearance of an over-mighty
 protector." 
[Malkin's HISTORY—OF—Greece] 
Every state which ROMe
 protected was ultimately subjugated and absorbed by her, 
Russia
 has been the protector of Poland, 
the protector of the Crimea,--the
 protector of Courland,--the protector of Georgia, 
Immeritia, 
Mingrelia,
 the Tcherkessian and Caucasian tribes, 
She has 1, 
protected, 
 appropriated them all, 
She protects Moldavia and Wallachia, 
A few years
 ago she became the protector of TURKEY from Mehemet ALI, 
 and since the
 summer of 1849 she has made herself the protector of AUSTRIA.
 When the partisans of Russia speak of the disinterestedness with
 which she withdrew her protecting troops from Constantinople, 
 Hungary, 
let us here also MARK the ominous exactness of the parallel
 between her and ROMe, 
While THE—ANCIENT world yet contained a number of
 independent states, 
which might have made a formidable league against
 ROMe if she had alarmed them by openly avowing her ambitious schemes,
 ROMe's favourite policy was seeming disinterestedness and moderation.
 After her 1, 
war against PHILIP, 
after that against Antiochus, 
 many others, 
victorious ROMe promptly withdrew her troops from the
 territories which they occupied, 
She affected to employ her arms only
 for the good of others, 
when the favourable moment came, 
 always found a pretext for marching her legions back into each coveted
 district, 
making it a ROMAn province, 
Fear, 
not moderation, 
is the
 only effective check on the ambition of such powers as Ancient ROMe and
 Modern Russia, 
The amount of that fear depends on the amount of timely
 vigilance and energy which other states choose to employ against the
 common enemy of their freedom and national independence.
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS FROM —BATTLE—OF—PULTOWA, 
THE DEFEAT OF
 BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA, 
17130000             , 
TREATY—OF—UTRECHT, 
PHILIP is left by it in possession of
 the throne of SPAIN, 
But Naples, 
MILAN, 
the Spanish territories on the
 Tuscan coast, 
the Spanish NETHERLANDs, 
some parts of THE—FRENCH
are given to AUSTRIA, 
FRANCE cedes to ENGLAND Hudson's
 Bay and Straits, 
the ISLAND of St, 
Christopher, 
NOVA—SCOTIA, 
 Newfoundland in America, 
SPAIN cedes to ENGLAND GIBRALTAR and Minorca,
 which THE—ENGLISH had taken
             —DURING—THE—WAR, 
The —KING—OF—Prussia and the
 DUKE—OF—Savoy both obtain considerable additions of territory to their
 dominions.
17140000             , 
Death of Queen Anne, 
THE—HOUSE of Hanover begins tO—REIgn in
A rebellion in favour of the Stuarts is put down, 
Death of
 LOUIS—XIV.
17180000             , 
killed at —SIEGE—OF—Frederickshall.
17250000             , 
Death of PETER the Great of Russia.
17400000             , 
FREDERICK—II, 
—KING—OF—Prussia, 
begins his reign, 
He attacks the
 AUSTRIAn dominions, 
conquers Silesia.
17420000             , 
WAR—BETWEEN—France and ENGLAND.
17430000             , 
VICTORY—OF—THE—ENGLISH at DETTINGEN.
17450000             , 
VICTORY—OF—THE—FRENCH at Fontenoy, 
Rebellion in Scotland in favour
 of THE—HOUSE of Stuart: finally quelled by —BATTLE—OF—Culloden in the
 next year.
17480000             , 
PEACE—OF—Aix-la-Chapelle.
17560000—17630000    , 
The Seven Years' War, 
             —DURING which Prussia makes an heroic
 resistance against THE—ALLIES of AUSTRIA, 
Russia, 
FRANCE, 
ENGLAND,
 under the administration of the elder Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham),
 takes a glorious part IN—THE—WAR in opposition to FRANCE and SPAIN.
 Wolfe wins —BATTLE—OF—QUEBEC, 
THE—ENGLISH conquer CANADA, 
Cape
 Breton, 
John, 
Clive begins his career of conquest in India.
 Cuba, 
is taken by THE—ENGLISH from SPAIN.
17630000             , 
TREATY—OF—Paris: which leaves the power of Prussia increased, 
 its MILITARY reputation greatly exalted.
 "FRANCE, 
by THE—TREATY—OF—Paris, 
ceded to ENGLAND CANADA, 
the ISLAND
 of Cape Breton, 
with the islands and coasts of the gulf and river of S—LAWRENCE, 
The boundaries between the two nations in North America were
 fixed by a line drawn along the middle of the Mississippi, 
from its
 source to its mouth, 
All on the left or eastern bank of that river, 
 given up to ENGLAND, 
except THE—CITY—OF—New Orleans, 
which was reserved
 to FRANCE, 
 as was also the liberty of the fisheries on a part of the
 coasts of Newfoundland and the Gulf of St, 
Lawrence, 
The islands of S—PETER and Miquelon were given them as a shelter for their fishermen, 
 without permission to raise fortifications, 
The islands of Martinico,
 Guadaloupe, 
Mariegalante, 
Desirada, 
Lucia, 
were surrendered
 while Grenada, 
the Grenadines, 
Vincent, 
Dominica, 
 Tobago, 
were ceded to ENGLAND, 
This latter power retained her conquests
 on the Senegal, 
restored to FRANCE the ISLAND of Gores, 
on-the coast
 of Africa, 
FRANCE was put in possession of the forts and factories which
 belonged to her in THE—EAST Indies, 
on the coasts of Coromandel, 
Orissa,
 Malabar, 
Bengal under the restriction of keeping up no military
 force in Bengal.
 "In Europe, 
FRANCE restored all the conquests she had made in GERMANY; as also the ISLAND, 
of Minorca, 
ENGLAND gave up to her Belleisle, 
 coast of Brittany, 
 while Dunkirk was kept —IN—THE—same condition as had
 been determined by the PEACE—OF—Aix-la-Chapelle, 
The ISLAND of Cuba,
 with the Havannah, 
were restored to the —KING—OF—Spain, 
on his part,
 ceded to ENGLAND FLORIDA, 
with Port-Augustine and the Bay of Pensacola.
 The —KING—OF—PORTUGAL was restored to the same state in which he had
 been before THE—WAR, 
The colony of St, 
Sacrament in America, 
 Spaniards had conquered, 
was given back to him.
 "The PEACE—OF—Paris, 
of which we have just now spoken, 
was the era of
 ENGLAND's greatest prosperity, 
Her commerce and navigation extended over
 all parts of the globe, 
were supported by a naval force so much
 the more imposing, 
as it was no longer counter-balanced by the maritime
 power of FRANCE, 
which had been almost annihilated in the preceding war.
 The immense territories which that peace had secured her, 
both in Africa
 and America, 
opened up new channels for her industry: and what deserves
 specially to be remarked is, 
that she acquired —TIME—AT—THE—SAME vast
 and important possessions in THE—EAST Indies." 
[Koch's REVOLUTIONs of
 Europe]
 CHAPTER—XIII, 
-- VICTORY—OF—THE AMERICANS OVER BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA,
17770000             .
 "Westward the course of empire takes its way; The 1, 
four acts ALREADY past,
 A fifth shall close the drama with THE—DAY:
 TIME'S NOBLEST OFFSPRING IS ITS LAST."
 BISHOP BERKELEY.
 "Even of those great KONFLIKTs, 
in which hundreds of thousands have been
 engaged and tens of thousands have fallen, 
none has been more fruitful
 of results than this surrender of thirty-5 hundred fighting-men
 at Saratoga, 
It not merely changed the relations of ENGLAND and
 the feelings of Europe towards these insurgent colonies, 
but it has
 modified, 
for all times to come, 
the connexion between every colony and
 every parent state."--LORD MAHON.
 Of the 4 great powers that now principally rule the political
 destinies of THE—WORLD, 
FRANCE and ENGLAND are the only two whose
 influence can be dated back beyond the last century and a half, 
 third great power, 
was a feeble mass of barbarism before the
 epoch of PETER the Great, 
 and the very existence of the fourth great
as an independent nation, 
commenced within the memory of
 living men, 
By the fourth great power of THE—WORLD I mean the mighty
 commonwealth of THE—WESTern continent, 
which now commands the admiration
 of mankind, 
That homage is sometimes reluctantly given, 
accompanied
 with suspicion and ill-will, 
But none can refuse it, 
All the physical
 essentials for national strength are undeniably to be found in the
 geographical position and amplitude of territory which THE—UNITED—STATES
 possess: in their almost inexhaustible tracts of fertile, 
but hitherto
 untouched soil, 
 in their stately forests, 
in their mountain-chains and
 their rivers, 
their beds of coal, 
stores of metallic wealth, 
 in
 their extensive seaboard along the waters of two oceans, 
in their
 ALREADY numerous and rapidly increasing population, 
when we examine
 the character of this population, 
no one can look on the fearless
 energy, 
the sturdy determination, 
the aptitude for local self
the versatile alacrity, 
the unresting spirit of
 enterprise which characterise the Anglo-Americans, 
without feeling that
 he here beholds the true moral elements of progressive might.
 3 quarters of 100—YEARS have NOT—YET passed away since the United
 States ceased to be mere dependencies of ENGLAND, 
even if we
 date their origin from the period when the 1, 
permanent European
 settlements, 
out of which they grew, 
were made on THE—WESTern coast
 of the North Atlantic, 
the increase of their strength is unparalleled,
 either in rapidity or extent.
 THE—ANCIENT ROMAn boasted, 
with reason, 
of the growth of ROMe from
 humble beginnings to the greatest magnitude which THE—WORLD had then
 ever witnessed, 
But the citizen of THE—UNITED—STATES is still more
 justly entitled to claim this praise, 
In two centuries and a half his
 country has acquired ampler dominion than THE—ROMAN—gained in ten, 
 even if we credit the legend of the—BAND—of shepherds and outlaws with
 which Romulus is said to have colonized the Seven Hills, 
we find not
 there so small a germ of future greatness, 
as we find in the group of
 a hundred and 5 ill-chosen and disunited emigrants who FOUNDED
 Jamestown in 1607, 
or —IN—THE—scanty—BAND—of the Pilgrim-Fathers, 
 few years later, 
moored their bark on the wild and rock-bound coast of
 the wilderness that was to become NEW—ENGLAND, 
The power of the United
 States is emphatically the "Imperium quo neque ab exordio ullum fere
 minus, 
neque incrementis toto orbe amplius humans potest memoria
 recordari." 
[EutroPIUS—LIBER—I (exordium)]
 Nothing is more calculated to impress the mind with a sense of the
 rapidity with which the resources of the American republic advance, 
 the difficulty which the historical inquirer finds in ascertaining their
 precise amount, 
If he KONSULts the most recent works, 
those written
 by the ablest investigators of the subject, 
he finds in them admiring
 comments on the change which the last few years, 
before those books were
 written, 
had made, 
 but when he turns to apply the estimates in those
 books to the present moment, 
he finds them wholly inadequate, 
Before
 a book on THE—SUBJECT—OF—THE—UNITED—STATES has lost its novelty, 
those
 states have outgrown the description which it contains, 
The celebrated
 work of THE—FRENCH statesman, 
De Tocqueville, 
appeared about fifteen
 YEARS—AGO, 
In the —PASSAGE which I am about to quote, 
it will be seen
 that he predicts the constant increase of the Anglo-American power, 
 he looks on the Rocky Mountains as their extreme western —LIMIT for many
 years to come, 
He had evidently no expectation of himself seeing that
 power dominant along the Pacific as well as along THE—ATLANTIC coast, 
 says:--
 "The distance from Lake Superior to the Gulf of Mexico extends from
 the 47th to the 30th degree of latitude, 
a distance of more than 1,200
 miles, 
as the bird flies, 
The frontier of THE—UNITED—STATES winds along
 the whole of this immense line, 
 sometimes falling within its limits,
 but more frequently extending far beyond it into the waste, 
 been calculated that the Whites, 
advance every year a mean distance of
 seventeen miles along the whole of this vast boundary, 
Obstacles, 
 as an unproductive district, 
a lake, 
or an Indian nation unexpectedly
are sometimes met with, 
The advancing column then halts for
 a while, 
 its two extremities fall back upon themselves, 
as soon as
 they are re-united they proceed onwards, 
This gradual and continuous
 progress of THE—EUropean race towards the Rocky Mountains has the
 solemnity of a Providential event: it is like a deluge of men rising
 unabatedly, 
daily driven onwards by the hand of God.
 "Within this 1, 
line of conquering settlers towns are built, 
 vast estates FOUNDED, 
In 1790 there were only a few thousand pioneers
 sprinkled along the valleys of the Mississippi: and at the present day
 these valleys contain as many inhabitants as were to be found in the
 whole Union in 1790, 
Their population amounts to nearly 4—MILLIONs.
 THE—CITY—OF—WASHINGTON was FOUNDED—IN,1800, 
in the very centre of the
 Union, 
 but such are the changes which have taken place, 
that it now
 stands at one of the extremities, 
 and the DELEGATES of the most remote
 Western States are ALREADY obliged to perform a journey as long so that
 from Vienna to PARIS.
 "It must not, 
be imagined that the impulse of THE—BRITISH race in
 the New World can be arrested, 
The dismemberment of the Union, 
 hostilities which might ensue, 
THE—ABOLITION—OF—republican institutions,
 and the tyrannical government which might succeed it, 
may retard this
 impulse, 
but they cannot prevent it from ultimately fulfilling the
 destinies to which that race is reserved, 
No power upon earth can close
 upon the emigrants that fertile wilderness, 
which offers resources to
 all industry, 
a refuge from all want, 
Future events, 
of whatever
 nature they may be, 
will not deprive the Americans of their climate or
 of their inland seas, 
or of their great rivers, 
or of their exuberant
 soil, 
Nor will bad laws, 
REVOLUTIONs, 
anarchy be able to obliterate
 that love of prosperity and that spirit of enterprise which seem to be
 the distinctive characteristics of their race, 
or to extinguish that
 knowledge which guides them on their way.
 "Thus, 
in the midst of the uncertain future, 
one event at least is sure.
 At a period which may be said to be near (for we are speaKING—OF—the
 life of a nation), 
the Anglo-Americans will alone cover the immense
 space contained between the Polar regions and the Tropics, 
extending
 from THE—COAST—OF—THE—ATLANTIC to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, 
 territory which will probably be occupied by the Anglo-Americans at
 some future time, 
may be computed to equal 3-quarters of Europe in
 extent, 
The climate of the Union is upon the whole preferable to that of
its natural advantages are not less great, 
 it is therefore
 evident that its population will at some future time be proportionate to
 our own, 
Europe, 
divided as it is between so many different nations, 
 torn as it has been by incessant wars and the barbarous manners of
 the Middle Ages, 
has notwithstanding attained a population of 410
 inhabitants to the square league, 
What cause can prevent the United
 States from having as numerous a population in time?
 "The time will therefore come when one hundred and fifty millions of men
 will be living in North America, 
equal in condition, 
the progeny of
 one race, 
owing their origin to the same cause, 
preserving the same
 civilization, 
the same language, 
the same RELIGION, 
the same habits, 
 same manners, 
imbued with the same opinions, 
propagated under the
 same forms, 
The rest is uncertain, 
but this is certain, 
 and it is a fact
 new to THE—WORLD, 
a fact fraught with such portentous consequences as to
 baffle the efforts even of the imagination."
[The original French of these passages will be found in THE—CHAPTER—on
 "Quelles sont les chances de duree de l'Union Americaine--Quels dangers
 la menacent." in the third volume of the 1, 
part of De Tocqueville,
 and in the conclusion of the 1, 
part, 
They are (with others)
 collected and translated by Mister Alison, 
in his "Essays," vol, 
iii, 
 374]
 Let us turn from THE—FRENCH statesman writing in 1835, 
to an English
 statesman, 
who is justly regarded as THE—HIGHest authority on all
 statistical subjects, 
who described THE—UNITED—STATES only seven
MacGREGOR 
[MacGREGOR's Commercial Statistics] 
tells us--
 "THE—STATEs which, 
on the ratification of independence, 
formed the
 American Republican Union, 
were thirteen, 
viz.:--
 "MASSACHUSETTS, 
NEW—HAMPSHIRE, 
Connecticut, 
RHODE—ISLAND, 
NEW—YORK,
 NEW—JERSEY, 
Delaware, 
MARYLAND, 
PENNSYLVANIA, 
VIRGINIA, 
NORTH—CAROLINA,
 South Carolina, 
Georgia." The foregoing thirteen states (THE
 WHOLE INHABITED TERRITORY OF WHICH, 
WITH THE EXCEPTION OF A FEW SMALL
 SETTLEMENTS, 
WAS CONFINED TO THE REGION EXTENDING BETWEEN THE ALLEGHANY
 MOUNTAINS AND THE—ATLANTIC) were those which existed at the period when
 they became an acknowledged separate and independent federal sovereign
The thirteen stripes of the —STANDARD or flag of the United
 States, 
continue to represent the original number, 
The stars have
 multiplied to twenty-6, 
[Fresh stars have dawned since this was
 written] 
according as the number of States have increased.
 "The territory of the thirteen original States of the Union, 
including
 Maine and Vermont, 
comprehended a superficies of 371,124 English square
 that of the whole UNITED—KINGDOM—of—GREAT—BRITAIN—and—IRELAND,
 120,354, 
 that of FRANCE, 
including Corsica, 
214,910, 
 that of the
 AUSTRIAn Empire, 
including Hungary and all THE—IMPERIAL—STATEs, 
257,540
 English square miles.
 "The present superficies of the 26 constitutional States of the
 Anglo-American Union, 
the DISTRICT—OF—Columbia, 
territories
 of FLORIDA, 
include 1,029,025 square miles, 
 to which if we add the
 north-west, 
or WISCONSIN territory, 
east of the Mississippi, 
bounded
 by Lake Superior on the north, 
Michigan on THE—EAST, 
occupying
 at least 100,000 square miles, 
then add the great western region,
 NOT—YET well-defined territories, 
but at the most limited calculation
 comprehending 700,000 square miles, 
the whole unbroken in its vast
 length and breadth by foreign nations, 
comprehends a portion of the
 earth's surface equal to 1,729,025 English, 
or 1,296,770 geographical
 square miles."
 We may add that the population of THE—STATEs, 
when they declared their
was about two millions and a half, 
 it is now twenty-3
 millions.
 I have quoted MacGREGOR, 
not only ON—ACCOUNT—OF—the clear and full view
 which he gives of the progress of America to the date when he wrote, 
 because his description may be contrasted with what THE—UNITED—STATES
 have become even since his book appeared, 
Only 3—YEARS after the
 time when MacGREGOR thus wrote, 
the AMERICAN—PRESIDENT truly stated:--
 "Within less than 4—YEARS the annexation of TEXAS to the Union has
 been consummated, 
 all KONFLIKTing title to the Oregon territory, 
 of the 49th degree of north latitude, 
adjusted, 
 and New Mexico and
 Upper California have been acquired by treaty, 
The area of these several
 territories contains 1,193,061 square miles, 
or 763,559,040 acres, 
 while
 the area of the remaining twenty-nine States, 
THE—TERRITORY NOT—YET
 organized into States east of the Rocky Mountains, 
contains 2,059,513
 square miles, 
or 1,318,126,058 acres, 
These estimates show that the
 territories recently acquired, 
over which our exclusive jurisdiction
 and dominion have been extended, 
constitute a country more than half
 as large as all that which was held by THE—UNITED—STATES before their
 acquisition, 
If Oregon be excluded from the estimate, 
there will still
 remain within the limits of TEXAS, 
New Mexico, 
California, 
851,598
or 545,012,720 acres, 
 being an addition equal to more than
 one-third of all THE—TERRITORY owned by THE—UNITED—STATES before
 their acquisition, 
including Oregon, 
nearly as great an extent of
 territory as the whole of Europe, 
Russia only excepted, 
THE MISSISSIPPI,
 SO LATELY THE FRONTIER OF OUR COUNTRY, 
IS NOW ONLY ITS CENTRE, 
With the
 addition of the late acquisitions, 
THE—UNITED—STATES are now estimated
 to be nearly as large as the whole of Europe, 
The extent of the
 sea-coast of TEXAS, 
on the Gulf of Mexico, 
is upwards of 400 miles; of THE—COAST—OF—Upper California, 
on the Pacific, 
of 970 miles, 
 and of
 Oregon, 
including the Straits of Fuca, 
of 650 miles, 
 MAKING THE WHOLE
 EXTENT OF SEA-COAST ON THE PACIFIC 1,620 MILES, 
 and the whole extent on
 both the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico, 
2,020 miles, 
The length of the
 coast on THE—ATLANTIC, 
from the northern limits of THE—UNITED—STATES,
 round the Capes of FLORIDA to the Sabine on THE—EASTern boundary
 of TEXAS, 
is estimated to be 3,100 miles, 
so that the addition of
 sea-coast, 
is very nearly two-thirds as great as all
 we possessed before, 
excluding Oregon, 
is an addition of 1,370
 being nearly equal to one-half of the extent of coast which we
 possessed before these acquisitions, 
We have now 3 great maritime
 fronts--on THE—ATLANTIC, 
the Gulf of Mexico, 
the Pacific, 
 making,
 in the whole, 
an extent of sea-coast exceeding 5,000 miles, 
This is
 the extent of the sea-coast of THE—UNITED—STATES, 
not including bays,
 sounds, 
small irregularities of the main shore, 
of the sea
 islands, 
If these be included, 
the length of the shore line of coast,
 as estimated by the superintendent of the Coast Survey, 
in his report,
 would be 33,063 miles."
 THE—IMPORTANCE of the power of THE—UNITED—STATES being then firmly
 planted along the Pacific applies not only to the New World, 
but to
 the Old, 
Opposite to SAN—FRANCISCO, 
on THE—COAST—OF—that ocean, 
lie
 the wealthy but decrepit empires of CHINA and JAPAN, 
Numerous groups of
 islets stud the larger part of the intervening sea, 
form convenient
 stepping-stones for the progress of commerce or ambition, 
 intercourse of traffic between these ancient Asiatic monarchies, 
 young Anglo-American Republic, 
must be rapid and extensive, 
Any attempt
 of the Chinese or JAPANese rulers to check it, 
will only accelerate an
 armed collision, 
The American will either buy or force his way, 
Between
 such populations as that of CHINA and JAPAN on the one side, 
 of THE—UNITED—STATES on the other--THE—FORMER—haughty, 
formal, 
 insolent, 
the latter bold, 
intrusive, 
unscrupulous--causes of
 quarrel must, 
sooner or later, 
arise, 
The results of such a quarrel
 cannot be doubted, 
America will scarcely imitate the forbearance shown
 by ENGLAND at the end of our late war with the Celestial Empire, 
 the conquests of CHINA and JAPAN by the fleets and armies of the United
are events which many now living are likely to witness, 
Compared
 with the magnitude of such changes in the dominion of the Old World,
 the certain ascendancy of the Anglo-Americans over Central and Southern
seems a matter of secondary importance, 
Well may we repeat De
 Tocqueville's words, 
that the growing power of this commonwealth is, 
"Un
 fait entierement nouveau dans LE—MONDE, 
et dont l'imagination ellememe
 ne saurait saisir la portee." 
[These remarks were written 18510500             —IN, 
 and now, 
in May 1852, 
a powerful squadron of American war-steamers has
 been sent to JAPAN, 
for the ostensible purpose of securing protection
 for the crews of American vessels shipwrecked on the JAPANese coasts,
 but also evidently for important ulterior purposes]
 An ENGLISH—MAN may look, 
ought to look, 
on the growing grandeur
 of the Americans with no small degree of generous sympathy and
 satisfaction, 
They, 
like ourselves, 
are MEMBERS—OF—the great ANGLO—SAXON
 nation "whose race and language are now overrunning THE—WORLD from one
 end of it to the other." 
[ARNOLD] 
and whatever differences of form of
 government may exist between us and them, 
 whatever reminiscences of the
 days when, 
though brethren, 
we strove together, 
may rankle in the
 minds of us, 
the defeated party, 
 we should cherish the bonds of common
 nationality that still exist between us, 
We should remember, 
 Athenians remembered of the Spartans at a season of jealousy and
 temptation, 
that our race is one, 
being of the same blood, 
speaking the
 same language, 
having an essential resemblance in our institutions and
worshipping in the temples of the same God, 
[HERODOTUS,
 viii, 
144] 
All this may and should be borne in mind, 
yet an
 ENGLISH—MAN can hardly watch the progress of America, 
without the
 regretful thought that America once was English, 
but for the
 folly of our rulers, 
she might be English still, 
It is true that
 the commerce between the two countries has largely and beneficially
 increased, 
 but this is no proof that the increase would not have been
 still greater, 
had THE—STATEs remained integral portions of the same
 great empire, 
By giving a fair and just participation in political
 rights, 
"the fairest possessions" of THE—BRITISH crown, 
might
 have been preserved to it, 
"This ancient and most noble monarchy" 
[Lord
 Chatham] 
would not have been dismembered, 
 nor should we see that which
 ought to be the right arm of our strength, 
now menacing us in every
 political crisis, 
as the most formidable rival of our commercial and
 maritime ascendancy.
 THE—WAR which rent away the North American colonies of ENGLAND is, 
 all subjects —IN—HISTORY, 
the most painful for an ENGLISH—MAN to dwell on.
 It was commenced and carried on by THE—BRITISH ministry in iniquity and
 folly, 
it was concluded in disaster and shame, 
But the contemplation
 of it cannot be evaded by the historian, 
however much it may be
 abhorred, 
Nor can any MILITARY event be said to have exercised more
 important influence on THE—FUTURE fortunes of mankind, 
than the complete
 DEFEAT—OF—Burgoyne's expedition in 1777, 
 a defeat which rescued the
 revolted colonists from certain subjection, 
by inducing the
 courts of FRANCE and SPAIN to attack ENGLAND in their behalf, 
ensured
 the independence of THE—UNITED—STATES, 
the formation of that
 trans-Atlantic power which, 
not only America, 
but both Europe and Asia,
 now see and feel.
in proceeding to describe this "decisive —BATTLE—OF—THE—WORLD,"
 a very brief recapitulation of the earlier events of THE—WAR may be
 sufficient, 
 nor shall I linger unnecessarily on a painful theme.
 The 5 northern colonies of MASSACHUSETTS, 
RHODE—ISLAND,
 NEW—HAMPSHIRE, 
Vermont, 
usually classed together as the New
 ENGLAND colonies, 
were the strongholds of the INSURRECTION against the
 mother-country, 
The feeling of resistance was less vehement and
 general IN—THE—CENTRAL settlement of NEW—YORK, 
 and still less so in
 PENNSYLVANIA, 
the other colonies of the south, 
although
 everywhere it was formidably active, 
VIRGINIA should, 
perhaps, 
 particularised for the zeal which its leading men displayed in the
 American cause, 
 but it was among the descendants of the stern Puritans
 that the spirit of Cromwell and Vane breathed in all its fervour, 
 it was
 from the NEW—ENGLANDers that the 1, 
armed opposition to THE—BRITISH
 crown had been offered, 
 and it was by them that the most stubborn
 determination to fight to the last, 
rather than waive a single right or
 privilege, 
had been displayed, 
In 1775, 
they had succeeded in forcing
 THE—BRITISH troops to evacuate Boston, 
 and THE—EVENTs of 1776 had made
 NEW—YORK (which the royalists captured in that year) the principal basis
 of operations for the armies of the mother-country.
 A glance at the map will show that the Hudson river, 
which falls into
 THE—ATLANTIC at NEW—YORK, 
runs down from the north at the back of the
 NEW—ENGLAND States, 
forming an angle of about forty-5 degrees with
 the line of THE—COAST—OF—THE—ATLANTIC, 
along which the NEW—ENGLAND
 states are situate, 
Northward of the Hudson, 
we see a small chain of
 lakes communicating with the Canadian frontier, 
It is necessary to
 attend closely to these geographical points, 
in order to understand the
 plan of THE—OPERATIONs which THE—ENGLISH attempted in 1777, 
 —BATTLE—OF—Saratoga defeated.
 THE—ENGLISH had a considerable force in CANADA, 
 and in 1776 had
 completely repulsed an attack which the Americans had made upon that
THE—BRITISH ministry resolved to avail themselves, 
in the next
 year, 
of the advantage which the occupation of CANADA gave them, 
 merely for the purpose of defence, 
but for the purpose of striking a
 vigorous and crushing blow against the revolted colonies, 
With this
 view, 
THE—ARMY in CANADA was largely reinforced, 
Seven thousand veteran
 troops were sent out from ENGLAND, 
with a corps of artillery abundantly
 supplied, 
led by select and experienced officers, 
Large quantities
 of MILITARY stores were also furnished for the equipment of the Canadian
 volunteers, 
who were expected to join the expedition, 
It was intended
 that the force thus collected should march southward by the line of the
 lakes, 
thence along THE—BANKs of the Hudson river, 
THE—BRITISH army
 in NEW—YORK (or a large detachment of it) was to make a simultaneous
 movement northward, 
up the line of the Hudson, 
the two expeditions
 were to unite at Albany, 
a town on that river, 
By these operations all
 communication between the northern colonies and those of the centre and
 south would be cut off, 
An irresistible force would be concentrated,
 so as to crush all further opposition in NEW—ENGLAND, 
 and when this was
 done, 
it was believed that the other colonies would speedily submit, 
 Americans had no troops in the field that seemed able to baffle these
 movements, 
Their principal army, 
under WASHINGTON, 
was occupied in
 watching over PENNSYLVANIA and the south, 
At any rate it was believed
in order to oppose the plan intended for the new campaign, 
 insurgents must risk a pitched battle, 
in which the superiority of
 the royalists, 
in numbers, 
in discipline, 
in equipment, 
seemed to
 promise to the latter a crowning victory, 
Without question the plan
 was ably formed, 
 and had the success of the EXECUTION been equal to the
 ingenuity of the design, 
the re-conquest or submission of the thirteen
 UNITED—STATES must, 
have followed, 
 independence which they proclaimed in 1776 would have been extinguished
 before it existed a second year, 
No European power had as yet come
 forward to aid America, 
It is true that ENGLAND was generally regarded
 with jealousy and ill-will, 
was thought to have acquired, 
 TREATY—OF—Paris, 
a preponderance of dominion which was perilous to the
 balance of power, 
 but though many were willing to wound, 
none had yet
 ventured to strike, 
if defeated in 1777, 
would have been
 suffered to fall unaided.
[In Lord Albemarle's "Memoirs of THE—MARQUIS of RockINGHAM." is
 contained the following remarkable state paper, 
drawn up by King George
 III himself respecting the plan of Burgoyne's expedition, 
The original
 is in the KING his own hand.
 "REMARKS ON THE CONDUCT OF THE—WAR FROM CANADA.
 "The outlines of the plan seem to be on a proper foundation, 
The rank
 and file of THE—ARMY now in CANADA (including the 11th Regiment of
 British, 
M'Clean's corps, 
the Brunswicks and Hanover), 
amount to 10,527; add the eleven additional companies and 4 hundred Hanover Chasseurs,
 the total will be 11,443.
 "As sickness and other contingencies must be expected, 
I should think
 not above 7,000 effectives can be spared over Lake Champlain, 
 for it
 would be highly imprudent to run any risk in CANADA.
 "The fixing the stations of those left in the province may not be quite
though the plan proposed may be recommended, 
Indians must be
 employed, 
this measure must be avowedly directed, 
Carleton must
 be —IN—THE—strongest manner directed that the Apollo shall be ready by
 that day, 
to receive Burgoyne.
 "The magazines must be formed with the greatest expedition, 
at Crown
 Point.
 "If possible, 
possession must be taken of Lake George, 
nothing but
 an absolute impossibility of succeeding in this, 
can be an excuse for
 proceeding by South Bay and Skeenborough.
 "As Sir W, 
Howe does not think of acting from RHODE—ISLAND into the
 Massachusets, 
the force from CANADA must join him in Albany.
 "The diversion on the Mohawk River ought at least to be strengthened by
 the addition of the 4 hundred Hanover Chasseurs.
 "The Ordnance ought to furnish a complete proportion of intrenching
 tools.
 "The provisions ought to be calculated for a third more than the
 effective soldiery, 
the GENERAL ordered to avoid delivering these
 when THE—ARMY can be subsisted by THE—COUNTRY, 
Burgoyne certainly
 greatly undervalues THE—GERMAN—recruits.
 "The idea of carrying THE—ARMY by sea to Sir W, 
Howe, 
would certainly
 require the leaving a much larger part of it in CANADA, 
as in that case
 the rebel army would divide that province from the immense one under Sir
 W, 
I greatly dislike this last idea."]
 Burgoyne had gained celebrity by some bold and dashing exploits in
 PORTUGAL
             —DURING—the last war, 
 he was personally as brave an officer as
 ever headed British troops, 
 he had considerable skill as a tactician; and his general intellectual abilities and acquirements were of a high
 order, 
He had several very able and experienced officers under him,
 among whom were Major-GENERAL Phillips and Brigadier-GENERAL Fraser, 
 regular troops amounted, 
exclusively of the corps of artillery, 
to about
 seven thousand two hundred men, 
rank and file, 
Nearly half of these were
 Germans, 
He had also an auxiliary force of from two to 3 thousand
 Canadians, 
He summoned THE—WARriors of several tribes of the Red Indians
 near THE—WESTern lakes to join his army, 
Much eloquence was poured
 forth, 
both in America and in ENGLAND, 
in denouncing THE—USE—OF—these
 savage auxiliaries, 
Yet Burgoyne seems to have done no more than
 Montcalm, 
Wolfe, 
other French, 
American, 
English generals had
 done before him, 
THE—LAWless ferocity of the Indians,
 their unskilfulness in regular ACTION, 
the utter impossibility of
 bringing them under any discipline, 
made their services of little or no
 value in times of difficulty: while the indignation which their
 outrages inspired, 
went far to rouse the whole population of the invaded
 districts into active hostilities against Burgoyne's force.
 Burgoyne assembled his troops and confederates near the river Bouquet,
 on THE—WEST side of Lake Champlain, 
He then, 
on the 21st of June, 
1777,
 gave his Red Allies a war-feast, 
harangued them on the necessity of
 abstaining from their usual cruel practices against unarmed people and
 prisoners, 
—TIME—AT—THE—SAME he published a pompous manifesto to the
 Americans, 
in which he threatened the refractory with all the horrors
 of war, 
Indian as well as European, 
THE—ARMY proceeded by water to
 Crown Point, 
a fortification which the Americans held at the northern
 extremity of the inlet by which the water from Lake George is conveyed
 to Lake Champlain, 
He landed here without opposition, 
 but the reduction
 of Ticonderoga, 
a fortification about twelve miles to the south of Crown
 Point, 
was a more serious matter, 
was supposed to be the critical
 part of the expedition, 
Ticonderoga commanded the —PASSAGE along the
was considered to be the key to the route which Burgoyne
 wished to follow, 
THE—ENGLISH had been repulsed in an attack on it
 IN—THE—WAR with THE—FRENCH in 1768 with severe loss, 
But Burgoyne now
 invested it with great skill, 
 and the American general, 
Clair, 
 had only an ill-equipped army of about 3 thousand men, 
evacuated it
 on the 5th of July, 
It seems evident that a different course would have
 caused the destruction or capture of his whole army, 
weak as it
was THE—CHIEF force then in the field for THE—PROTECTION—OF—the New
 ENGLAND states, 
When censured by some of his countrymen for abandoning
 Ticonderoga, 
Clair truly replied, 
"that he had lost a post, 
 saved a province." Burgoyne's troops pursued the retiring Americans,
 gained several advantages over them, 
took a large part of their
 artillery and MILITARY stores.
 The loss of THE—BRITISH in these engagements was trifling, 
THE—ARMY
 moved southward along Lake George to Skenesborough, 
 and thence slowly,
 and with great difficulty, 
across a broken country, 
full of creeks and
 marshes, 
clogged by the enemy with felled trees and other obstacles,
 to FORT—Edward, 
on the Hudson river, 
the American troops continuing to
 retire before them.
 Burgoyne reached the left bank of the Hudson river on the 30th of July.
 Hitherto he had overcome every difficulty which the enemy and the nature
 of THE—COUNTRY had placed in his way, 
His army was in excellent order
 and IN—THE—HIGHest spirits, 
 and the peril of the expedition seemed over,
 when they were once on THE—BANK of the river which was to be the channel
 of communication between them and THE—BRITISH army —IN—THE—south, 
 their feelings, 
those of THE—ENGLISH—NATION in general when their
 successes were announced, 
may best be learned from a contemporary
 writer, 
Burke, 
in the "Annual Register" for 1777, 
describes them thus:--
 "Such was the rapid torrent of success, 
which swept everything away
 before the northern army in its onset, 
It is not to be wondered at,
 if both officers and private men were highly elated with their good
 fortune, 
deemed that and their prowess to be irresistible, 
 if they
 regarded their enemy with the greatest contempt, 
 considered their own
 toils to be nearly at an end, 
 Albany to be ALREADY in their hands, 
 the reduction of the northern provinces to be rather a matter of some
than an arduous task full of difficulty and danger.
 "At home, 
the joy and exultation was extreme, 
 not only at court, 
 with all those who hoped or wished the unqualified subjugation, 
 unconditional submission of the colonies, 
The loss in reputation was
 greater to the Americans, 
capable of more fatal consequences,
 than even that of ground, 
of posts, 
of artillery, 
or of men, 
All the
 contemptuous and most degrading charges which had been made by their
of their wanting THE—RESOLUTION and abilities of men, 
 in their defence of whatever was dear to them, 
were now repeated and
 believed, 
Those who still regarded them as men, 
who had NOT—YET lost
 all affection to them as brethren, 
who also retained hopes that a happy
 reconciliation upon constitutional principles, 
without sacrificing
 the dignity or the just authority of government on the one side, 
 a dereliction of the rights of freemen on the other, 
was not even now
 impossible, 
notwithstanding their favourable dispositions in general,
 could not help feeling upon this occasion that the Americans sunk not a
 little in their estimation, 
It was not difficult to diffuse an opinion
 that THE—WAR in effect was over, 
 and that any further resistance could
 serve only to render the terms of their submission the worse, 
Such were
 some of the immediate effects of the loss of those grand keys of North
Ticonderoga and the lakes."
 The astonishment and alarm which these events produced among the
 Americans were naturally great, 
 but in the midst of their disasters none
 of the colonists showed any disposition to submit, 
The local governments
 of the NEW—ENGLAND States, 
as well as the CONGRESS, 
acted with vigour
 and firmness in their efforts to repel the enemy, 
GENERAL Gates was sent
 to take command of THE—ARMY at Saratoga, 
 and ARNOLD, 
a favourite leader
 of the Americans, 
was despatched by WASHINGTON to act under him,
 with reinforcements of troops and guns from the main American army.
 Burgoyne's employment of the Indians now produced the worst possible
 effects, 
Though he laboured hard to check the atrocities which they
 were accustomed to commit, 
he could not prevent the occurrence of many
 barbarous outrages, 
repugnant both to the feelings of humanity and to
 THE—LAWs of civilized warfare, 
The US—COMMANDERs took care that
 THE—REPORTs of these excesses should be circulated far and wide, 
well
 knowing that they would make the stern NEW—ENGLANDers not droop, 
 rage, 
Such was their effect, 
 and though, 
when each man looked upon his
 wife, 
his children, 
his sisters, 
or his aged parents, 
the thought of the
 merciless Indian "thirsting for the blood of man, 
woman, 
child,"
 of "the cannibal savage torturing, 
murdering, 
roasting, 
eating the
 mangled victims of his barbarous battles," 
[Lord Chatham's speech on
 the employment of Indians IN—THE—WAR] 
"might raise TERROR—IN—the bravest
 breasts, 
 this very terror produced a directly contrary effect to causing
 submission to THE—ROYAL—army, 
It was seen that THE—FEW friends of the
 royal cause, 
as well as its enemies, 
were liable to be the victims of
 the indiscriminate rage of the savages, 
[See in the "Annual Register"
 for 1777, 
p.117, 
the "Narrative of the Murder of Miss M'Crea, 
 daughter of an American loyalist."] 
and thus "THE—INHABITANTS—OF—the
 open and frontier countries had no choice of acting: they had no means
 of security left, 
but by abandoning their habitations and taking up
Every man saw the necessity of becoming a temporary soldier, 
 only for his own security, 
but for THE—PROTECTION and defence of those
 connexions which are dearer than life itself, 
Thus an army was poured
 forth by the woods, 
mountains, 
marshes, 
which in this part were
 thickly sown with plantations and villages, 
The Americans recalled their
 courage, 
 and when their regular army seemed to be entirely wasted,
 the spirit of THE—COUNTRY produced a much greater and more formidable
 force." 
[Burke]
 While resolute recruits, 
accustomed to THE—USE—OF—fire-arms, 
 partially trained by service in the provincial militias, 
were thus
 flocking to the —STANDARD of Gates and ARNOLD at Saratoga, 
 and while
 Burgoyne was engaged at Port Edward in providing the means for the
 further advance of his army through the intricate and hostile country
 that still lay before him, 
two events occurred, 
in each of which the
 British sustained loss, 
the Americans obtained advantage, 
the moral
 effects of which were even more important than the immediate result
 of the encounters, 
When Burgoyne left CANADA, 
GENERAL St, 
Leger was
 detached from that province with a mixed force of about one thousand
some light field-pieces, 
across Lake Ontario against Fort
 Stanwix, 
which the Americans held, 
After capturing this, 
he was to
 march along the Mohawk river to its confluence with the Hudson, 
between
 Saratoga and Albany, 
where his force and that of Burgoyne were to unite.
after some successes, 
Leger was obliged to retreat, 
 abandon his tents and large quantities of stores to the garrison, 
 very time that GENERAL Burgoyne heard of this disaster, 
he experienced
 one still more severe IN—THE—DEFEAT—OF—Colonel Baum with a large
 detachment of GERMAN—TROOPS at Benington, 
whither Burgoyne had sent them
 for the purpose of capturing some magazines of provisions, 
of which
 THE—BRITISH army stood greatly in need, 
The Americans, 
augmented by
 continual accessions of strength, 
succeeded, 
after many attacks, 
 breaking this corps, 
which fled into the woods, 
left its commander
 mortally wounded on the field: they then marched against a force of 5
 hundred grenadiers and light infantry, 
which was advancing to Colonel
 Baum's assistance under Lieutenant-Colonel Breyman, 
after a gallant
was obliged to retreat on the main army, 
THE—BRITISH loss
 in these two actions exceeded 6 hundred men: and a party of American
 loyalists, 
on their way to join THE—ARMY, 
having attached themselves to
 Colonel Baum's corps, 
were destroyed with it.
 Notwithstanding these reverses, 
which added greatly to the spirit and
 numbers of the American forces, 
Burgoyne determined to advance, 
 impossible any longer to keep up his communications with CANADA by
 way of the lakes, 
so as to supply his army on his southward march, 
 having by unremitting exertions collected provisions for thirty days, 
 crossed the Hudson by means of a bridge of rafts, 
marching a short
 distance along its western bank, 
he encamped on the 14th of             ;;09;; on
 the heights of Saratoga, 
about sixteen miles from Albany, 
The Americans
 had fallen back from Saratoga, 
were now strongly posted near
 Stillwater, 
about half way between Saratoga and Albany, 
showed a
 determination to recede no farther.
 Meanwhile Lord Howe, 
with the bulk of THE—BRITISH army that had lain
 at NEW—YORK, 
had sailed away to the Delaware, 
there commenced
 a campaign against WASHINGTON, 
in which THE—ENGLISH general took
 Philadelphia, 
gained other showy, 
but unprofitable successes,
 But Sir HENRY CLINTON, 
a brave and skilful officer, 
was left with a
 considerable force at NEW—YORK, 
 and he undertook the task of moving up
 the Hudson to co-operate with Burgoyne, 
CLINTON was obliged for this
 purpose to wait for reinforcements which had been promised from ENGLAND,
 and these did not arrive till             ;;09;;, 
As soon as he received them,
 CLINTON embarked about 3,000 of his men on a flotilla, 
convoyed by some
 ships of war under Commander Hotham, 
proceeded to force his may up
 the river, 
but it was long before he was able to open any communication
 with Burgoyne.
 THE—COUNTRY between Burgoyne's position at Saratoga and that of
 the Americans at Stillwater was rugged, 
seamed with creeks and
 water-courses, 
 but after great labour in making bridges and temporary
 causeways, 
THE—BRITISH army moved forward, 
About 4 miles from
 Saratoga, 
on the afternoon of the 19th of             ;;09;;, 
a sharp encounter
 took place between part of THE—ENGLISH right wing, 
under Burgoyne
a strong body of the enemy, 
under Gates and ARNOLD, 
 KONFLIKT lasted till sunset, 
THE—BRITISH remained masters of the field; but the loss on each side was nearly equal (from 5 hundred to 6
 hundred men), 
 and the spirits of the Americans were greatly raised by
 having withstood the best regular troops of THE—ENGLISH army, 
Burgoyne
 now halted AGAIN, 
strengthened his position by field-works and
 redoubts, 
 and the Americans also improved their defences, 
The two armies
 remained nearly within cannon-shot of each other for a considerable
             —DURING which Burgoyne was anxiously looking for intelligence of
 the promised expedition from NEW—YORK, 
ACCORDING—TO—the original
ought by this time to have been approaching Albany from the south.
 At last, 
a messenger from CLINTON made his way, 
with great difficulty,
 to Burgoyne's camp, 
brought THE—INFORMATION that CLINTON was on his
 way up the Hudson to attack the American forts which barred the passage
 up that river to Albany, 
Burgoyne, 
in reply, 
on the 30th of             ;;09;;,
 urged CLINTON to attack the forts as speedily as possible, 
stating that
 the effect of such an attack, 
or even the semblance of it, 
would be
 to move THE—AMERICAN—ARMY from its position before his own troops, 
 another messenger, 
who reached CLINTON on the 5th of ;;10;;, 
 informed his brother general that he had lost his communications with
 CANADA, 
but had provisions which would last him till the 20th, 
 described himself as strongly posted, 
stated that though the
 Americans in front of him were strongly posted also, 
he made no doubt
 of being able to force them, 
making his way to Albany, 
 but that he
 doubted whether he could subsist there, 
as THE—COUNTRY was drained of
 provisions, 
He wished CLINTON to meet him there, 
to keep open a
 communication with NEW—YORK, 
[See the letters of GENERAL CLINTON to
 GENERAL Harvey, 
published by Lord Albemarle in his "Memoirs of the
 Marquis of RockINGHAM," VOLUME—II—PAGE—335, 
ET SEQ]
 Burgoyne had over-estimated his resources, 
in the very beginning of
 ;;10;; found difficulty and distress pressing him hard.
 The Indians and Canadians began to desert him, 
 while, 
 Gates's army was continually reinforced by fresh bodies of the militia.
 An expeditionary force was detached by the Americans, 
which made a bold,
 though unsuccessful, 
attempt to retake Ticonderoga, 
finding the
 number and spirit of the enemy to increase daily, 
his own stores of
 provision to diminish, 
Burgoyne determined on attacking the Americans
 in front of him, 
by dislodging them from their position, 
to gain the
 means of moving upon Albany, 
or at least of relieving his troops from
 the straitened position in which they were cooped up.
 Burgoyne's force was now reduced to less than 6,000—MEN, 
The right of
 his camp was on some high ground a little to THE—WEST of the river; thence his entrenchments extended along the lower ground to THE—BANK of
 the Hudson, 
the line of their front being nearly at a right angle with
 the course of the stream, 
The lines were fortified with redoubts and
 field-works, 
on a height on THE—BANK of the extreme right a strong
 redoubt was reared, 
entrenchments, 
in a horse-shoe form, 
thrown
The Hessians, 
under Colonel Breyman, 
were stationed here, 
forming
 a flank defence to Burgoyne's main army, 
The numerical force of the
 Americans was now greater than THE—BRITISH even in regular troops, 
 the numbers of the militia and volunteers which had joined Gates and
 ARNOLD were greater still.
 GENERAL Lincoln with 2,000 NEW—ENGLAND troops, 
had reached the American
 camp on the 29th of             ;;09;;, 
Gates gave him the command of the
 right wing, 
took in person the command of the left wing, 
 composed of two brigades under GENERALs Poor and Leonard, 
of Colonel
 Morgan's rifle corps, 
part of the fresh NEW—ENGLAND Militia, 
 whole of the American lines had been ably fortified under the direction
 of the celebrated Polish general, 
Kosciusko, 
who was now serving as a
 volunteer in Gates's army, 
The right of the American position, 
 is to say, 
the part of it nearest to the river, 
was too strong to be
 assailed with any prospect of success: and Burgoyne therefore determined
 to endeavour to force their left, 
For this purpose he formed a column
 of 1,500 regular troops, 
with two twelve-pounders, 
two howitzers and
 6 6-pounders, 
He headed this in person, 
having GENERALs Phillips,
 Reidesel, 
Fraser under him, 
The enemy's force immediately in front
 of his lines was so strong that he dared not weaken the troops who
 guarded them, 
by detaching any more to strengthen his column of attack.
 It was on the 7th of ;;10;; that Burgoyne led his column forward; and on the preceding day, 
the 6th, 
CLINTON had successfully executed
 a brilliant enterprise against the two American forts which barred his
 progress up the Hudson, 
He had captured them both, 
with severe loss to
 the American forces opposed to him, 
 he had destroyed the fleet which the
 Americans had been forming on the Hudson, 
under THE—PROTECTION—OF—their
 forts, 
 and the upward river was laid open to his squadron, 
He had also,
 with admirable skill and industry, 
collected in small vessels, 
 as could float within a few miles of Albany, 
provisions sufficient to
 supply Burgoyne's Army for 6 months, 
[See CLINTON's letters in Lord
 Albemarle—PAGE—337] 
He was now only a hundred and fifty-6 miles
 distant from Burgoyne, 
 and a detachment of 1,700—MEN actually advanced
 within forty miles of Albany, 
Unfortunately Burgoyne and CLINTON were
 each ignorant of the other's movements, 
 but if Burgoyne had won his
 battle on the 7th, 
he must on advancing have soon learned the tidings of
 CLINTON's success, 
CLINTON would have heard of his, 
A junction would
 soon have been made of the two victorious armies, 
the great objects
 of THE—CAMPAIGN might yet have been accomplished, 
All depended on
 the fortune of the column with which Burgoyne, 
on THE—EVENTful 7th of
advanced against the American position, 
There were
 brave men, 
both English and German, 
in its ranks, 
 and in particular it
 comprised one of the best bodies of grenadiers in THE—BRITISH service.
[I am indebted for many of the details of the battle, 
to Mr Lossing's
 "Field-book of THE—REVOLUTION."]
 Burgoyne pushed forward some bodies of irregular troops to distract the
 enemy's attention, 
 and led his column to within 3-quarters of a mile
 from the left of Gates's camp, 
then deployed his men into line, 
 grenadiers under Major Ackland, 
the artillery under MAJOR—WILLIAMS,
 were drawn up on the left, 
 a corps of Germans under GENERAL Reidesel,
 and some British troops under GENERAL Phillips, 
were in the centre, 
 THE—ENGLISH light infantry, 
the 24th regiment under Lord Balcarres
 and GENERAL Fraser, 
were on the right, 
But Gates did not wait to be
 attacked, 
 and directly THE—BRITISH line was formed and began to advance,
 the American general, 
with admirable skill, 
caused GENERAL Poor's
 brigade of NEW—YORK and NEW—HAMPSHIRE troops, 
part of GENERAL
 Leonard's brigade, 
to make a sudden and vehement rush against its left,
 and —TIME—AT—THE—SAME sent Colonel Morgan, 
with his rifle corps and
 other troops, 
amounting to 1,500, 
to turn the right of THE—ENGLISH, 
 grenadiers under Ackland sustained the charge of superior numbers nobly.
 But Gates sent more Americans forward, 
in a few minutes the ACTION
 became general along the centre, 
so as to prevent THE—GERMANS from
 detaching any help to the grenadiers, 
Morgan, 
with his riflemen, 
was now
 pressing Lord Balcarres and GENERAL Fraser hard, 
fresh masses of the
 enemy were observed advancing from their extreme left, 
with the evident
 intention of forcing THE—BRITISH right, 
cutting off its retreat, 
 English light infantry and the 24th now fell back, 
formed an oblique
 second line, 
which enabled them to baffle this manoeuvre, 
also to
 succour their comrades in the left wing, 
the gallant grenadiers, 
 were overpowered by superior numbers, 
but for this aid, 
must have
 been cut to pieces.
 The contest now was fiercely maintained on both sides, 
 cannon were repeatedly taken and retaken, 
 but when the grenadiers near
 them were forced back by the weight of superior numbers, 
one of the guns
 was permanently captured by the Americans, 
turned upon THE—ENGLISH.
 MAJOR—WILLIAMS and Major Ackland were both made prisoners, 
 this part of the field the advantage of the Americans was decided, 
 British centre still held its ground, 
 but now it was that the American
 general ARNOLD appeared upon the scene, 
did more for his countrymen
 than whole battalions could have effected, 
ARNOLD, 
when the decisive
 engagement of the 7th of ;;10;; commenced, 
had been deprived of his
 command by Gates, 
in consequence of a quarrel between them about the
 ACTION of the 19th of             ;;09;;, 
He had listened for a short time in the
 American camp to the thunder of the battle, 
in which he had no military
 right to take part, 
either as commander or as combatant, 
But his excited
 spirit could not long endure such a state of inaction, 
He called for his
a powerful brown charger, 
springing on it, 
galloped furiously
 to where the fight seemed to be the thickest, 
Gates saw him, 
sent
 an aide-de-camp to recall him, 
 but ARNOLD spurred far in advance, 
 placed himself at the HEAD—OF—3 regiments which had formerly been
which welcomed their old commander with joyous cheers, 
 led them instantly upon THE—BRITISH centre, 
 and then galloping along the
 American line, 
he issued orders for a renewed and a closer attack, 
 were obeyed with alacrity, 
ARNOLD himself setting the example of the
 most daring personal bravery, 
charging more than once, 
sword in
into THE—ENGLISH ranks, 
On THE—BRITISH side the officers did
 their duty nobly, 
 but GENERAL Fraser was the most eminent of them all,
 restoring order wherever the line began to waver, 
infusing fresh
 courage into his men by voice and example, 
Mounted on an iron-grey
 charger, 
dressed in the full uniform of a GENERAL—OFFICER, 
he was
 conspicuous to foes as well as to friends, 
The American Colonel Morgan
 thought that the fate of the battle rested on this gallant man's life,
 and calling several of his best marksman round him, 
pointed Fraser out,
 and said: "That officer is GENERAL Fraser, 
 I admire him, 
but he must
 die, 
Our victory depends on it, 
Take your stations in that clump of
 bushes, 
do your duty." Within 5 minutes Fraser fell mortally
was carried to THE—BRITISH camp by two grenadiers, 
Just
 previously to his being struck by the fatal bullet, 
one rifle-ball had
 cut the crupper of his saddle and smother had passed through his horse's
 mane close behind the ears, 
His aide-de-camp had noticed this, 
said:
 "It is evident that you are marked out for particular aim, 
 would it not
 be prudent, 
 for you to retire from this place?" Fraser replied: "My duty
 forbids me to fly from danger, 
" and the next moment he fell, 
[Lossing]
 Burgoyne's whole force was now compelled to retreat towards their camp; the left and centre were in complete disorder, 
but the light infantry
 and the 24th checked the fury of the assailants, 
the remains of
 the column with great difficulty effected their return to their camp; leaving 6 of their cannons IN—THE—POSSESSION—OF—the enemy, 
 numbers of killed and wounded on the field, 
 and especially a large
 proportion of the artillerymen, 
who had stood to their guns until shot
 down or bayoneted beside them by the advancing Americans.
 Burgoyne's column had been defeated, 
but the ACTION was NOT—YET over.
 THE—ENGLISH had scarcely entered the camp, 
when the Americans,
 pursuing their success, 
assaulted it in several places with remarkable
 impetuosity, 
rushing in upon the intrenchments and redoubts through a
 severe fire of grape-shot and musketry, 
ARNOLD especially, 
who on this
 day appeared maddened with the thirst of combat and carnage, 
urged on
 the attack against a part of the intrenchments which was occupied by the
 light infantry under Lord Balcarres, 
[Botta's American War, 
BOOK—Viii]
 But THE—ENGLISH received him with vigour and spirit, 
The struggle here
 was obstinate and sanguinary, 
as it grew towards evening,
 ARNOLD, 
having forced all obstacles, 
entered the works with some of the
 most fearless of his followers, 
But in this critical moment of glory and
he received a painful wound —IN—THE—same leg which had ALREADY
 been injured at the —ASSAULT—ON—QUEBEC, 
To his bitter regret he was
 obliged to be carried back, 
His party still continued the attack, 
 THE—ENGLISH also continued their obstinate resistance, 
at last
 night fell, 
the assailants withdrew from this quarter of THE—BRITISH
 intrenchments, 
in another part the attack had been more successful.
 A body of the Americans, 
under Colonel Brooke, 
forced their way in
 through a part of the horse-shoe intrenchments on the extreme right,
 which was defended by the Hessian reserve under Colonel Breyman, 
 Germans resisted well, 
Breyman died in defence of his post, 
 Americans made good the ground which they had won, 
captured baggage,
 tents, 
artillery, 
a store of ammunition, 
which they were greatly in
 need of, 
They had by establishing themselves on this point, 
acquired the
 means of completely turning the right flank of THE—BRITISH, 
gaining
 their rear, 
To prevent this calamity, 
Burgoyne effected
             —DURING—the night
 an entire change of position, 
With great skill he removed his whole army
 to some heights near the river, 
a little northward of THE—FORMER—camp,
 and he there drew up his men, 
expecting to be attacked on the following
But Gates was resolved not to risk the certain triumph which
 his success had ALREADY secured for him, 
He harassed THE—ENGLISH with
 skirmishes, 
but attempted no regular attack, 
Meanwhile he detached
 bodies of troops on both sides of the Hudson to prevent THE—BRITISH from
 recrossing that river, 
to bar their retreat, 
When night fell,
 it became absolutely necessary for Burgoyne to retire AGAIN, 
 accordingly, 
the troops were marched through a stormy and rainy night
 towards Saratoga, 
abandoning their sick and wounded, 
the greater
 part of their baggage to the enemy.
 Before the rear-guard quitted the camp, 
the last sad honours were paid
 to the brave GENERAL Fraser, 
who expired —ON—THE—DAY—AFTER the ACTION.
 He had, 
almost with his last breath, 
expressed a wish to be buried in
 the redoubt which had formed the part of THE—BRITISH lines where he had
 been stationed, 
but which had now been abandoned by THE—ENGLISH, 
 was within full range of the cannon which the advancing Americans were
 rapidly placing in position to bear upon Burgoyne's force, 
nevertheless, 
to comply with the dying wish of his comrade; and the interment took place under circumstances the most affecting
 that have ever marked a soldier's funeral, 
Still more interesting is
 the narrative of Lady Ackland's —PASSAGE from THE—BRITISH to the American
after the battle, 
to share the captivity and alleviate the
 sufferings of her husband who had been severely wounded, 
left in the
 enemy's power, 
The American historian, 
Lossing, 
has described both these
 touching episodes of THE—CAMPAIGN, 
in a spirit that does honour to the
 writer as well as to his subject, 
After narrating the death of GENERAL
 Fraser on the 8. of ;;10;;, 
he says that "It was just at sunset, 
 that calm ;;10;; evening, 
that the corpse of GENERAL Fraser was carried
 up the hill to the place of burial within the 'great redoubt.' It was
 attended only by THE—MILITARY MEMBERS—OF—his family and Mister Brudenell,
 the chaplain, 
 yet the eyes of hundreds of both armies followed the
 solemn procession, 
while the Americans, 
ignorant of its true character,
 kept up a constant cannonade upon the redoubt, 
The chaplain, 
unawed by
 THE—DANGER to which he was exposed, 
as the cannon-balls that struck the
 hill threw the loose soil over him, 
pronounced the impressive funeral
 SERVICE—OF—THE—CHURCH—OF—ENGLAND with an unfaltering voice, 
The growing
 darkness added solemnity to the scene, 
Suddenly the irregular firing
 ceased, 
the solemn voice of a single cannon, 
at measured intervals,
 boomed along the valley, 
awakened the responses of the hills, 
 a minute gun fired by the Americans in honour of the gallant dead, 
 moment THE—INFORMATION was given that the gathering at the redoubt was a
 funeral company, 
fulfilling, 
at imminent peril, 
the last-breathed wishes
 of the noble Fraser, 
orders were issued to withhold the cannonade with
 balls, 
to render MILITARY homage to the fallen brave.
 gained considerable influence over the Sclavonic populations of TURKEY."--WILKINSON'S DALMATIA]
             —DURING—THE 150—YEARS which followed the close of the
 second PUNIC—WAR, 
The Seven Years' War,
 time,
 "The case of Major Ackland and his heroic wife presents kindred
 features, 
He belonged to the grenadiers, 
was an accomplished
 soldier, 
his oo accompanied him to CANADA in 1776, 
 whole campaign of that year, 
until his return to ENGLAND after the
 surrender of Burgoyne, 
—AUTUMN—IN—THE, of 1777, 
endured all the hardships,
 dangers, 
privations of an active campaign in an enemy's country, 
 Chambly, 
on the Sorel, 
she attended him in illness, 
in a miserable
 hut, 
 and when he was wounded IN—THE—BATTLE—OF—Hubbardton, 
Vermont
 she hastened to him at Henesborough from MONTREAL, 
where she had been
 persuaded to remain, 
resolved to follow THE—ARMY hereafter, 
 before crossing the Hudson, 
she and her husband had had a narrow escape
 from losing their lives in consequence of their tent accidentally taking
 fire.
 "
             —DURING the terrible engagement of the 7th ;;10;;, 
she heard all the
 tumult and dreadful thunder of the battle in which her husband was
 engaged, 
 and when, 
—ON—THE—MORNING—OF—the 8., 
THE—BRITISH fell back in
 confusion to their new position, 
she, 
with the other women, 
was obliged
 to take refuge among the dead and dying, 
 for the tents were all struck,
 and hardly a shed was left standing, 
Her husband was wounded, 
 prisoner in the American camp, 
That gallant officer was shot through
 both legs, 
When Poor and Learned's troops assaulted the grenadiers and
 artillery on THE—BRITISH left, 
on the afternoon of the 7th, 
Wilkinson,
 Gates's adjutant-general, 
while pursuing the flying enemy when they
 abandoned their battery, 
heard a feeble voice exclaim 'Protect me,
 sir, 
against that boy.' He turned and saw a lad with a musket taking
 deliberate aim at a wounded British officer, 
lying in a corner of a low
 fence, 
Wilkinson ordered the boy to desist, 
discovered the wounded
 man to be Major Ackland, 
He had him conveyed to the quarters of GENERAL
 Poor (now the residence of Mister Neilson) on the heights, 
where every
 attention was paid to his wants.
 "When THE—INTELLIGENCE that he was wounded and a prisoner reached his
she was greatly distressed, 
by the advice of her friend,
 Baron Reidesel, 
resolved to visit the American camp, 
implore the
 favour of a personal attendance upon her husband, 
On the 9th she sent
 a message to Burgoyne by Lord PETERsham, 
his aide-de-camp, 
asking
 permission to depart, 
'Though I was ready to believe,' says Burgoyne,
 'that patience and fortitude, 
in a supreme degree, 
were to be found,
 as well as every other virtue, 
under the most tender forms, 
I was
 astonished at this proposal, 
After so long an —AGITATION of spirits,
 exhausted not only for want of rest, 
but absolutely want of food,
 drenched in rain for twelve hours together, 
that a woman should be
 capable of such an undertaking as delivering herself to an enemy,
 probably in the night, 
uncertain of what hands she might fall into,
 appeared an effort above human nature, 
The assistance I was able to give
 was small indeed, 
I had not even a cup of wine to offer her, 
All I could
 furnish her with was an open boat, 
a few lines, 
written upon dirty
 wet paper, 
to GENERAL Gates, 
recommending her to his protection.'
 The following is a copy of the note sent by Burgoyne to GENERAL
 Gates:--'Sir,--Lady Harriet Ackland, 
a lady of the 1, 
distinction of
 family, 
personal virtues, 
is under such concern on account of
 Major Ackland, 
her husband, 
wounded and a prisoner in your hands, 
 I cannot refuse her request to commit her to your protection, 
Whatever
 general impropriety there may be in persons of my —SITUATION and yours to
 solicit favours, 
I cannot see the uncommon perseverance in every female
 grace, 
the exaltation of character of this lady, 
her very hard
without testifying that your attentions to her will lay me
 under obligations, 
I am, 
sir, 
your obedient servant, 
J, 
Burgoyne.' She
 set out in an open boat upon the Hudson, 
accompanied by Mister Brudenell,
Sarah POLLARD, 
her waiting maid, 
her husband's valet,
 who had been severely wounded while searching for his master upon the
It was about sunset when they started, 
a violent
 storm of rain and wind, 
which had been increasing since the morning,
 rendered the voyage tedious and perilous in the extreme, 
It was long
 after dark when they reached the American out-posts, 
 the sentinel heard
 their oars, 
hailed them, 
Lady Harriet returned the answer herself.
 The clear, 
silvery tones of a woman's voice amid the darkness, 
filled
 the soldier on duty with superstitious fear, 
he called a comrade
 to accompany him to the river bank, 
The errand of the voyagers was made
 known, 
but the faithful guard, 
apprehensive of treachery, 
would not
 allow them to laud until they sent for Major Dearborn, 
They were invited
 by that officer to his quarters, 
where every attention was paid to them,
 and Lady Harriet was comforted by the joyful tidings that her husband
 was safe, 
In the morning she experienced parental tenderness from
 GENERAL Gates who sent her to her husband, 
at Poor's quarters, 
under a
 suitable escort, 
There she remained until he was removed to Albany."
 Burgoyne now took up his last position on the heights near Saratoga, 
 hemmed in by the enemy, 
who refused any encounter, 
baffled in all
 his attempts at finding a path of escape, 
he there lingered until famine
 compelled him to capitulate, 
The fortitude of THE—BRITISH army -DURING             
 this melancholy period has been justly eulogised by many native
but I prefer quoting the testimony of a foreign writer, 
 free from all possibility of partiality, 
Botta says: 
[Botta, 
 "It exceeds the power of words to describe the pitiable condition to
 which THE—BRITISH army was now reduced, 
The troops were worn down by a
 series of toil, 
privation, 
sickness, 
desperate fighting, 
 abandoned by the Indians and Canadians, 
 and the effective force of the
 whole army was now diminished by repeated and heavy losses, 
 principally fallen on the best soldiers and the most distinguished
from ten thousand combatants to less than one-half that
Of this remnant little more than 3 thousand were English.
 "In these circumstances, 
thus weakened, 
they were invested by an
 army of 4 times their own number, 
whose position extended 3 parts
 of a circle round them, 
 who refused to fight them, 
as knowing their
from the nature of the ground, 
could not be attacked
 in any part, 
In this helpless condition, 
obliged to be constantly under
while the enemy's cannon played on every part of their camp, 
 even the American rifle-balls whistled in many parts of the lines, 
 troops of Burgoyne retained their customary firmness, 
while sinking
 under a hard necessity, 
they showed themselves worthy of a better fate.
 They could not be reproached with an ACTION or a word, 
which betrayed a
 want of temper or of fortitude."
 At length the 13th of ;;10;; arrived, 
as no prospect of assistance
 appeared, 
the provisions were nearly exhausted, 
by the
 unanimous advice of a COUNCIL—OF—war, 
sent a messenger to the American
 camp to treat of a CONVENTION.
 GENERAL Gates in the 1, 
instance demanded that THE—ROYAL—army should
 surrender prisoners of war, 
He also proposed that THE—BRITISH should
 ground their arms, 
Burgoyne replied, 
"This article is inadmissible in
 every extremity, 
 sooner than this army will consent to ground their arms
 in their encampment, 
they will rush on the enemy, 
determined to take no
 quarter." After various messages, 
a CONVENTION for THE—SURRENDER—OF—the
 army was settled, 
which provided that "The troops under GENERAL Burgoyne
 were to march out of their camp with the honours of war, 
 artillery of the intrenchments, 
to the verge of the river, 
 arms and artillery were to be left, 
The arms to be piled by word of
 command from their own officers, 
A free —PASSAGE was to be granted to the
 army under Lieutenant-GENERAL Burgoyne to GREAT—BRITAIN, 
upon condition
 of not serving AGAIN in North America
             —DURING—the present contest."
 The articles of capitulation were settled on the 15th of ;;10;;: and
 on that very evening a messenger arrived from CLINTON with an account
 of his successes, 
with the tidings that part of his force had
 penetrated as far as Esopus, 
within fifty miles of Burgoyne's camp, 
 it was too late, 
THE—PUBLIC faith was pledged, 
 and THE—ARMY was, 
 too debilitated by fatigue and hunger to resist an attack if made;  
 Gates certainly would have made it, 
if the CONVENTION had been broken off.
 Accordingly, 
 on the 17th, 
the CONVENTION—OF—Saratoga was carried into effect, 
 By this CONVENTION 5,790—MEN surrendered themselves as prisoners.
 The sick and wounded left in the camp when THE—BRITISH retreated to Saratoga, 
 together with the numbers of THE—BRITISH, 
German, 
Canadian troops, 
who were killed, 
wounded, 
or taken, 
 who had deserted in the preceding part of the expedition, 
were reckoned to be 4,689.
 THE—BRITISH sick and wounded who had fallen into the hands of the Americans after —BATTLE—OF—the 7th, 
were treated with exemplary humanity;  
 when the CONVENTION was executed, 
GENERAL Gates showed a noble delicacy of feeling which deserves THE—HIGHest degree of honour.
 Every circumstance was avoided which could give the appearance of triumph, 
 The American troops remained within their lines until THE—BRITISH had piled their arms;  and 
 when this was done, 
the vanquished officers and soldiers were received with friendly kindness by their victors, 
 their immediate wants were promptly and liberally supplied.
 Discussions and disputes afterwards arose as to some of the terms of the CONVENTION;  and 
 the American CONGRESS refused for a long time to carry into effect the article which provided for the return of Burgoyne's men to Europe;  
 but no blame was imputable to GENERAL Gates or his army, 
who showed themselves to be generous as they had proved themselves to be brave.
 Gates after THE—VICTORY, 
immediately despatched Colonel Wilkinson to carry the happy tidings to CONGRESS, 
 On being introduced into the hall, 
"The whole British army has laid down its arms at Saratoga;  
full of vigour and courage, 
expect your order, 
 It is for your wisdom to decide where THE—COUNTRY may still have need for their service." 
 Honours and rewards were liberally voted by the CONGRESS to their conquering general and his men;  
 "and it would be difficult" (says the Italian historian) "to describe the transports of joy which the
 —NEWS—OF—this event excited among the Americans, 
They began to flatter themselves with a still more happy future, 
No one any longer felt any
 doubt about their achieving their independence, 
All hoped, 
with good reason, 
that a success of this importance would at length determine
the other European powers that waited for her example, 
to declare themselves in favour of America, 
 THERE COULD NO LONGER BE ANY QUESTION RESPECTING THE—FUTURE;  
 SINCE THERE WAS NO LONGER THE RISK OF ESPOUSING THE CAUSE OF A PEOPLE TOO FEEBLE TO DEFEND THEMSELVES."
 THE—TRUTH of this was soon displayed in the conduct of FRANCE, 
When
 THE—NEWS arrived at PARIS of the capture of Ticonderoga, 
 victorious march of Burgoyne towards Albany, 
events which seemed
 decisive in favour of THE—ENGLISH, 
instructions had been immediately
 despatched to Nantz, 
the other ports of the kingdom, 
that no
 American privateers should be suffered to enter them, 
except from
 indispensable necessity, 
as to repair their vessels, 
to obtain
or to escape the perils of the sea, 
The American
 commissioners at PARIS, 
in their disgust and despair, 
had almost
 broken off all negotiations with THE—FRENCH—GOVERNMENT, 
 and they even
 endeavoured to open communications with THE—BRITISH ministry, 
 British government, 
elated with the 1, 
successes of Burgoyne, 
refused
 to listen to any overtures for accommodation, 
But when THE—NEWS of
 Saratoga reached PARIS, 
the whole scene was changed, 
Franklin and his
 brother commissioners found all their difficulties with THE—FRENCH
 government vanish, 
The time seemed to have arrived for THE—HOUSE of
 BOURBON to take a full revenge for all its humiliations and losses in
 previoUS—WARs, 
In;;12;; a treaty was arranged, 
formally signed
 in the ;;02;; following, 
by which FRANCE acknowledged the INDEPENDENT
 UNITED—STATES OF AMERICA, 
This was, 
tantamount to a
 DECLARATION—OF—war with ENGLAND, 
SPAIN soon followed FRANCE, 
 long HOLLAND took the same course, 
Largely aided by French fleets and
the Americans vigorously maintained THE—WAR—AGAINST—the armies
 which ENGLAND, 
in spite of her European foes, 
continued to send across
 THE—ATLANTIC, 
But the struggle was too unequal to be maintained by this
 country for many years: and when the treaties of 1783 restored peace
 to THE—WORLD, 
the independence of THE—UNITED—STATES was reluctantly
 recognized by their ancient parent and recent enemy, 
ENGLAND.
17770000             THE—DEFEAT—OF—BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA, 
17920000             —BATTLE—OF—VALMY, 
17810000             Surrender of Lord Cornwallis and THE—BRITISH army to WASHINGTON.
17820000             Rodney's victory over the Spanish fleet, 
Unsuccessful siege of GIBRALTAR by THE—SPANIARDS and French.
17830000             End of the American war.
17880000             THE—STATEs-GENERAL are convened in FRANCE:-
 -beginning of THE—REVOLUTION.
 CHAPTER—XIV, 
-- —BATTLE—OF—VALMY.
 "Purpurei metuunt tyranni
 Injurioso ne pede proruas
 Stantem columnam, 
 neu populus frequens
 Ad arma cessantes ad arma
 Concitet, 
imperiumque frangat."
 HORAT, 
i 35.
 "A little fire is quickly trodden out,
 Which, 
being suffered, 
rivers cannot quench."
 SHAKESPEARE.
 A few miles distant from the little TOWN—OF—St, 
Menehould, 
 north-east of FRANCE, 
are the village and hill of Valmy, 
 and near the crest of that hill, 
a simple monument points out the burial-place of
 the heart of a general of THE—FRENCH republic, 
a marshal of THE—FRENCH—EMPIRE.
 The elder KELLERMAN (father of the distinguished officer of that name,
 whose cavalry-charge decided —BATTLE—OF—MARENGO) held high commands
 IN—THE—FRENCH armies —THROUGHOUT THE—WARs of the CONVENTION, 
 Directory, 
the KONSULate, 
He survived those wars, 
 THE—EMPIRE itself, 
dying in extreme old age in 1820, 
The last wish of
 the veteran on his death bed was that his heart should be deposited in
 the battle-field of Valmy, 
there to repose among the remains of his old
 companions in arms, 
who had fallen at his side on that spot twenty-eight
 YEARS—BEFORE, 
on the memorable day when they won the primal victory
 of REVOLUTIONary FRANCE, 
prevented the armies of Brunswick and
 the emigrant bands of Conde from marching on defenceless PARIS, 
 destroying the immature democracy in its cradle.
 THE—DUKE—OF—Valmy (for KELLERMAN, 
when made one of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's
 MILITARY peers in 1802, 
took his title from this same battlefield) had
 participated,
             —DURING his long and active career, 
in the gaining of
 many a victory far more immediately dazzling than the the one, 
 remembrance of which he thus cherished, 
He had been present at many a
 scene of carnage, 
where blood flowed in deluges, 
compared with which the
 libations of slaughter poured out at Valmy would have seemed scant and
 insignificant, 
But he rightly estimated the paramount importance of the
 battle with which he thus wished his appellation while living, 
 memory after his death, 
to be identified, 
The successful resistance,
 which the new Carmagnole levies, 
the disorganized relics of the old
 monarchy's army, 
then opposed to the combined hosts and chosen leaders
 of Prussia, 
AUSTRIA, 
THE—FRENCH refugee noblesse, 
determined at
 once and for ever the belligerent character of THE—REVOLUTION, 
The raw
 artisans and tradesmen, 
the clumsy burghers, 
the base mechanics and low
 peasant churls, 
as it had been the fashion to term the middle and
 lower classes in FRANCE, 
found that they could face cannon-balls, 
pull
 triggers, 
cross bayonets, 
without having been drilled into military
 machines, 
without being officered by scions of noble houses, 
 awoke to the consciousness of their own instinctive soldiership, 
 at once acquired confidence in themselves and in each other, 
 and that
 confidence soon grew into a spirit of unbounded audacity and ambition.
 "From the cannonade of Valmy may be dated the commencement of that
 career of victory which carried their armies to Vienna and THE—KREMLIN."
[Alison]
 One of the gravest reflections that arises from the contemplation of the
 civil restlessness and MILITARY enthusiasm which the close of the last
 century saw nationalised in FRANCE, 
is the consideration that these
 disturbing influences have become perpetual, 
No settled —SYSTEM of
that shall endure from generation to generation, 
that shall
 be proof against corruption and popular violence, 
seems capable of
 taking root among THE—FRENCH 
every REVOLUTIONary movement in PARIS
 thrills —THROUGHOUT the rest of THE—WORLD, 
Even the successes which the
 powers allied against FRANCE gained in 
18140000             and 
18150000             
important as they
could not annul the effects of the preceding twenty-3—YEARS of
 general convulsion and war.
18300000             In , 
THE—DYNASTY which foreign bayonets had imposed on FRANCE was shaken off;  
 and men trembled at the expected outbreak of French anarchy
 and the dreaded inroads of French ambition, 
 They "looked forward with harassing anxiety to a PERIOD—OF—destruction similar to that which the
 ROMAn world experienced about the middle of the third Jh. of our era."
[See Niebuhr's Preface to the second volume of the "HISTORY—OF—Rome," written 18301000             —IN, ]
 LOUIS—PHILIPPE cajoled REVOLUTION, 
then strove with seeming success to stifle it, 
But in spite of Fieschi
 laws, 
in spite of the dazzle of Algerian razzias and Pyrenees-effacing marriages, 
in spite of hundreds of armed forts, 
hundreds of
 thousands of coercing troops, 
REVOLUTION lived, 
struggled to get free, 
The old Titan spirit heaved restlessly beneath "the monarchy based
 on republican institutions." 
the whole fabric of kingcraft was at once rent and scattered to the winds, 
by the uprising of the Parisian democracy;  
 and INSURRECTIONs, 
BARRICADEs and dethronements, 
the downFALL—OF—coronets and crowns, 
THE—ARMED collisions
 of parties, 
systems, 
populations, 
became the commonplaces of recent European history.
 FRANCE now calls herself a republic, 
17920920             FRANCE 1, 
assumed that title of a republic , 
17920920             —ON, the very DAY—ON—WHICH —BATTLE—OF—VALMY was fought and won, 
17920920             To that battle —BATTLE—OF—VALMY the democratic spirit which in
18480000             , 
as well as in
17920000             , 
proclaimed the Republic in PARIS, 
 owed its preservation, 
17920920             it is thence that the imperishable activity of its principles may be dated.
17920920             —ON, the eve of that —BATTLE—OF—VALMY Far different seemed the prospects of democracy in Europe; and 
17920920             far different would have been the present position and influence of THE—FRENCH nation, 
if Brunswick's columns had charged with more boldness, 
if  the lines of DUMOURIEZ resisted with less firmness.
17920000             —IN, 
When FRANCE, 
declared war with the great powers of Europe,
FRANCE was far from possessing that splendid MILITARY ORGANIZATION which the experience of a few REVOLUTIONary campaigns taught her to assume, 
which she has never abandoned, 
             —DURING—the latter part of THE—REIGN—OF—LOUIS—XV, 
THE—ARMY of the old monarchy had sunk into gradual decay,
 both in numerical force, 
 in efficiency of equipment and spirit, 
 The laurels gained by the auxiliary regiments which LOUIS—XVI, 
sent to the American war, 
did but little to restore the general tone of THE—ARMY.
 The insubordination and licence, 
which the revolt of THE—FRENCH guards,
 and the participation of other troops in many of the 1, 
excesses of THE—REVOLUTION introduced among the soldiery, 
were soon rapidly
 disseminated through all the ranks, 
Under the Legislative Assembly every complaint of the soldier against his officer, 
however frivolous
 or ill-FOUNDED, 
was listened to with eagerness, 
investigated with partiality, 
on THE—PRINCIPLEs of liberty and equality, 
 Discipline accordingly became more and more relaxed;  and
 the dissolution of several of the old corps, 
under the pretext of their being tainted with an
 aristocratic feeling, 
aggravated the confusion and inefficiency of THE—WAR department, 
Many of the most effective regiments
             —DURING—the last
 PERIOD—OF—the monarchy had consisted of foreigners, 
 These had either been slaughtered in defence of the throne against INSURRECTIONs, 
like the Swiss;  
 or had been disbanded, 
had crossed the frontier to recruit the forces which were assembling for the —INVASÃON—OF—France.
 Above all, 
the emigration of THE—NOBLESse had stripped THE—FRENCH—ARMY of nearly all its officers of high rank, 
of the greatest portion
 of its subalterns, 
More than twelve thousand of THE—HIGH-born youth of FRANCE, 
who had been trained to regard MILITARY command as their
 exclusive patrimony, 
to whom the nation had been accustomed to look up as its natural guides and champions —IN—THE—storm of war;  
 were now marshalled beneath the banner of Conde and the other emigrant princes,
 for the overthrow of THE—FRENCH armies, 
the reduction of THE—FRENCH capital, 
Their successors IN—THE—FRENCH regiments and brigades had
 as yet acquired neither skill nor experience: they possessed neither self-reliance nor the respect of the men who were under them.
 Such was THE—STATE—OF—the wrecks of the old army;  
 but the bulk of the forces with which FRANCE began THE—WAR, 
consisted of raw INSURRECTIONary levies, 
which were even less to be depended on, 
 The Carmagnoles, 
as THE—REVOLUTIONary volunteers were called, 
flocked, 
readily to the
 frontier from every department when THE—WAR was proclaimed, 
the fierce leaders of the JACOBINs shouted that THE—COUNTRY was in danger.
 They were full of zeal and courage, 
"heated and excited by the scenes of THE—REVOLUTION, 
inflamed by the florid eloquence, 
the songs, 
dances,
 and signal-words with which it had been celebrated." 
[Scott, 
Life of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE—VOLUME—iCHAPTER—viii] 
But they were utterly undisciplined, 
 turbulently impatient of superior authority, 
or systematical control.
 Many ruffians, 
who were sullied with participation in the most sanguinary horrors of PARIS, 
joined the camps, 
were pre-eminent
 alike for misconduct before the enemy and for savage insubordination against their own officers, 
On one occasion
             —DURING—THE—CAMPAIGN of
 Valmy, 
eight battalions of federates, 
intoxicated with massacre and sedition, 
joined the forces under DUMOURIEZ, 
soon threatened to
 uproot all discipline, 
saying openly that THE—ANCIENT officers were
that it was necessary to purge THE—ARMY, 
as they had
of its aristocrats, 
DUMOURIEZ posted these battalions apart from
 the others, 
placed a strong force of cavalry behind them, 
two pieces
 of cannon on their flank, 
affecting to review them, 
he halted at
 the HEAD—OF—the line, 
surrounded by all his staff, 
an escort of a
 hundred hussars, 
"Fellows," said he, 
"for I will not call you either
 citizens or soldiers, 
you see before you this artillery, 
behind you this cavalry, 
 you are stained with crimes, 
I do not tolerate here
 assassins or executioners, 
I know that there are scoundrels amongst you
 charged to excite you to crime, 
Drive them from amongst you, 
or denounce
 them to me, 
for I shall hold you responsible for their conduct."
[Lamartine]
 One of our recent historians of THE—REVOLUTION, 
who narrates this
 incident, 
[Carlyle] 
thus apostrophises THE—FRENCH general:--
 "Patience, 
O DUMOURIEZ!  
This uncertain heap of shriekers, 
mutineers,
 were they once drilled and inured, 
will become a phalanxed mass of
 fighters, 
 and wheel and whirl to order swiftly, 
like the wind or the
 whirlwind, 
 tanned mustachio-figures, 
 often barefoot, 
even barebacked,
 with sinews of iron, 
 who require only bread and gunpowder, 
 very sons of
 fire, 
 the adroitest, 
hastiest, 
hottest, 
ever seen perhaps since ATTILA's time."
 Such phalanxed masses of fighters did the Carmagnoles ultimately become;  
 but FRANCE ran a fearful risk in being obliged to rely on them when the
 process of their transmutation had barely commenced.
 The 1, 
events, 
of THE—WAR were disastrous and disgraceful to
even beyond what might have been expected from the chaotic state
 in which it found her armies as well as her government, 
In the hopes of
 profiting by the unprepared state of AUSTRIA, 
then the mistress of the
THE—FRENCH opened THE—CAMPAIGN—OF—1792 by an —INVASÃON of
with forces whose muster-rolls showed a numerical overwhelming
 superiority to the enemy, 
seemed to promise a speedy conquest of
 that old battle-field of Europe, 
But the 1, 
flash of an AUSTRIAn
 sabre, 
or the 1, 
sound of AUSTRIAn gun, 
was enough to discomfit the
Their 1, 
corps, 
four thousand strong, 
that advanced from
 LILLE across the frontier, 
came suddenly upon a far inferior detachment
 of the AUSTRIAn garrison of Tournay, 
Not a shot was fired, 
not a bayonet
 levelled, 
With one simultaneous cry of panic THE—FRENCH broke and
 ran headlong back to LILLE, 
where they completed the specimen of
 insubordination which they had given in the field, 
by murdering their
 general and several of their chief officers, 
On the same day, 
another
 division under Biron, 
mustering ten thousand sabres and bayonets, 
saw
 a few AUSTRIAn skirmishers reconnoitering their position, 
 advanced posts had scarcely given and received a volley, 
only a few
 balls from the enemy's field-pieces had fallen among the lines, 
when two
 regiments of French dragoons raised the cry, 
"We are betrayed," galloped
 off, 
were followed in disgraceful rout by the rest of the whole
Similar panics, 
or repulses almost equally discreditable, 
occurred
 whenever Rochambeau, 
or Luckner, 
or LA—FAYETTE, 
the earliest French
 generals IN—THE—WAR, 
brought their troops into the presence of the
 enemy.
the allied sovereigns had gradually collected on the Rhine
 a veteran and finely-disciplined army for the —INVASÃON—OF—France, 
 for numbers, 
equipment, 
martial renown, 
both of generals and men,
 was equal to any that GERMANY had ever sent forth to conquer, 
 design was to strike boldly and decisively at the heart of FRANCE, 
 penetrating THE—COUNTRY through the Ardennes, 
to proceed by CHALONS upon
The obstacles that lay in their way seemed insignificant, 
 disorder and imbecility of THE—FRENCH armies had been even augmented by
 the forced flight of LA—FAYETTE, 
a sudden change of generals, 
 only troops posted on or near the track by which THE—ALLIES were about
 to advance, 
were the twenty-3 thousand men at SEDAN, 
whom LA—FAYETTE
 had commanded, 
a corps of twenty thousand near METZ, 
the command of
 which had just been transferred from Luckner to KELLERMAN, 
 only 3 fortresses which it was necessary for THE—ALLIES to capture
 or mask--SEDAN, 
Longwy, 
VERDUN, 
The defences and stores of these
 3 were known to be wretchedly dismantled and insufficient, 
 once these feeble barriers were overcome, 
CHALONS reached, 
a fertile
 and unprotected country seemed to invite the invaders to that "military
 promenade to PARIS," which they gaily talked of accomplishing.
 At the end of.;;07;;the allied army, 
having completed all preparations
 for THE—CAMPAIGN, 
broke up from its cantonments, 
marching from
 LUXEMBOURG upon Longwy, 
crossed THE—FRENCH frontier, 
Eighty thousand
 Prussians, 
trained —IN—THE—school, 
many of them under the eye of
 the Great Frederick, 
heirs of the glories of the Seven Years' War, 
 universally esteemed the best troops in Europe, 
marched in one column
 against THE—CENTRAL point of attack, 
Forty-5 thousand AUSTRIAns, 
 greater part of whom were picked troops, 
had served in the recent
 Turkish war, 
supplied two formidable corps that supported the flanks of
 THE—PRUSSIANS, 
There was also a powerful body of Hessians, 
leagued
 with THE—GERMANS against the Parisian democracy, 
came fifteen thousand
 of THE—NOBLESt and bravest amongst the sons of FRANCE, 
In these corps
 of emigrants, 
many of THE—HIGHest born of THE—FRENCH nobility, 
scions
 of houses whose chivalric trophies had —FOR—CENTURIES filled Europe with
 renown, 
served as rank and file, 
They looked on the road to PARIS as the
 path which they were to carve out by their swords to victory, 
to honour,
 to the rescue of their king, 
to reunion with their families, 
 recovery of their patrimony, 
to the restoration of their order, 
 Scott, 
Life of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
VOLUME—ICHAPTER—xi]
 Over this imposing army the allied sovereigns placed as generalissimo
 THE—DUKE—OF—Brunswick, 
one of the minor reigning princes of GERMANY, 
 statesman of no mean capacity, 
who had acquired —IN—THE—seven Years'
a MILITARY reputation second only to that of the Great Frederick
He had been deputed a few YEARS—BEFORE to quell the popular
 movements which then took place in HOLLAND, 
 and he had put down
 the attempted REVOLUTION—IN—that country with a promptitude and
 completeness, 
which appeared to augur equal success to THE—ARMY that now
 marched under his orders on a similar mission into FRANCE.
 Moving majestically forward, 
with leisurely deliberation, 
that seemed
 to show the consciousness of superior strength, 
a steady purpose of
 doing their work thoroughly, 
THE—ALLIES appeared before Longwy on the
 20th of August, 
the dispirited and dependent garrison opened the
 gates of that fortress to them after the 1, 
shower of bombs, 
 the 2d of             ;;09;; the still more important stronghold of VERDUN
 capitulated after scarcely the shadow of resistance.
 Brunswick's superior force was now interposed between KELLERMAN's troops
 on the left, 
the other FRENCH—ARMY near SEDAN, 
which LA—FAYETTE's
 flight had, 
for the time, 
left destitute of a commander, 
It was in the
 power of THE—GERMAN—general, 
by striking with an overwhelming mass to
 the right and left, 
to crush in succession each of these weak armies,
 and THE—ALLIES might then have marched irresistible and unresisted upon
But at this crisis DUMOURIEZ, 
the new commander-in-chief of
 THE—FRENCH 
arrived at the camp near SEDAN, 
commenced a series of
by which he reunited the dispersed and disorganized forces
 of his country, 
checked the PREUSSEN—columns at the very moment when the
 last obstacles of their triumph seemed to have given way, 
 rolled back the tide of —INVASÃON far across the enemy's frontier.
 THE—FRENCH fortresses had fallen, 
 but nature herself still offered
 to brave and vigorous defenders of the land, 
the means of opposing a
 barrier to the progress of THE—ALLIES, 
A ridge of broken ground, 
called
 the Argonne, 
extends from the vicinity of SEDAN towards the south-west
 for about fifteen or sixteen leagues, 
THE—COUNTRY of L'Argonne has now
 been cleared and drained, 
 but in 1792 it was thickly wooded, 
 lower portions of its unequal surface were filled with rivulets and
It thus presented a natural barrier of from 4 to 5
 leagues broad, 
which was absolutely impenetrable to an army, 
except by a
 few defiles, 
such as an inferior force might easily fortify and defend.
 DUMOURIEZ succeeded in marching his army down from SEDAN behind the
 Argonne, 
in occupying its passes, 
while THE—PRUSSIANS still lingered
 on the north-eastern side of the forest line, 
Ordering KELLERMAN to
 wheel round from METZ to St, 
the reinforcements from the
 interior and extreme north also to concentrate at that spot, 
DUMOURIEZ
 trusted to assemble a powerful force in the rear of the south-west
 extremity of the Argonne, 
while, 
with the twenty-5 thousand men under
 his immediate command, 
he held the enemy at bay before the passes, 
 forced him to a long circumvolution round one extremity of the forest
 ridge,
             —DURING which, 
favourable opportunities of assailing his flank
 were almost certain to occur, 
DUMOURIEZ fortified the principal defiles,
 and boasted of the THERMOPYLAE which he had found for the invaders, 
 the simile was nearly rendered fatally complete for the defending force.
 A pass, 
which was thought of inferior importance, 
had been but slightly
 manned, 
an AUSTRIAn corps under Clairfayt, 
forced it after some
 sharp fighting, 
DUMOURIEZ with great difficulty saved himself from being
 enveloped and destroyed by the hostile columns that now pushed through
 the forest, 
But instead of despairing at the failure of his plans,
 and falling back into the interior, 
to be completely severed from
 KELLERMAN's army, 
to be hunted as a fugitive under the walls of PARIS
 by the victorious Germans, 
to lose all chance of ever rallying his
 dispirited troops, 
he resolved to cling to the difficult country in
 which the armies still were grouped, 
to force a junction with KELLERMAN,
 and so to place himself at the HEAD—OF—a force, 
which the invaders would
 not dare to disregard, 
by which he might drag them back from the
 advance on PARIS, 
which he had not been able to bar, 
Accordingly, 
 rapid movement to the south,
in his own words, 
"FRANCE was
 within a hair's-breadth of destruction," and after, 
with difficulty,
 checking several panics of his troops in which they ran by thousands at
 the sight of a few PREUSSEN—hussars, 
DUMOURIEZ succeeded in establishing
 his HEAD—QUARTERs in a strong position at St, 
protected by
 the marshes and shallows of the river Aisne and Aube, 
beyond which, 
 the north-west, 
rose a firm and elevated plateau, 
called Dampierre's
admirably situated for commanding the road by CHALONS to PARIS,
 and where he intended to post KELLERMAN's army so soon as it came
[Some late writers represent that Brunswick did not wish to check
 DUMOURIEZ, 
There is no sufficient authority for this insinuation, 
 seems to have been 1, 
prompted by a desire to soothe the wounded
 MILITARY pride of THE—PRUSSIANS]
 THE—NEWS of the retreat of DUMOURIEZ from the Argonne passes, 
 panic flight of some divisions of his troops, 
spread rapidly —THROUGHOUT
 and KELLERMAN, 
who believed that his comrade's army had
 been annihilated, 
feared to fall among the victorious masses of the
had halted on his march from METZ when almost close to
 St, 
He had actually commenced a retrograde movement, 
 couriers from his commander-in-chief checked him from that fatal course; and then continuing to wheel round the rear and left flank of the troops
 at St, 
KELLERMAN, 
with twenty thousand of THE—ARMY of METZ,
 and some thousands of volunteers who had joined him in the march,
 made his appearance to THE—WEST of DUMOURIEZ, 
on the very evening
 when Westerman and Thouvenot, 
two of the staff-officers of DUMOURIEZ,
 galloped in with the tidings that Brunswick's army had come through
 the upper passes of the Argonne in full force, 
was deploying on the
 heights of La Lune, 
a chain of eminences that stretch obliquely from
 south-west to north-east opposite THE—HIGH ground which DUMOURIEZ held,
 and also opposite, 
but at a shorter distance from, 
the position which
 KELLERMAN was designed to occupy.
 THE—ALLIES were now, 
nearer to PARIS than were THE—FRENCH
 troops themselves, 
as DUMOURIEZ had foreseen, 
Brunswick deemed it
 unsafe to march upon the capital with so large a hostile force left in
 his rear between his advancing columns and his base of operations, 
 young —KING—OF—Prussia, 
who was in the allied camp, 
the emigrant
eagerly advocated an instant attack upon the nearest French
KELLERMAN had laid himself unnecessarily open, 
by advancing
 beyond Dampierre's Camp, 
which DUMOURIEZ had designed for him, 
 moving forward across the Aube to the plateau of Valmy, 
a post inferior
 in strength and space to that which he had left, 
which brought him
 close upon the PREUSSEN—lines, 
leaving him separated by a dangerous
 interval from the troops under DUMOURIEZ himself, 
It seemed easy for the
 PREUSSEN—army to overwhelm him while thus isolated, 
then they might
 surround and crush DUMOURIEZ at their leisure.
17920920             in the grey of the morning of the right wing of the allied army moved forward, 
17920920             to gain KELLERMAN's left flank and rear, 
cut him off from retreat upon CHALONS, 
17920920             the rest of THE—ARMY, 
moving from the heights of La Lune, 
which here converge semi—circularly round the plateau of Valmy,
17920920             were to assail his position in front, 
interpose between him and DUMOURIEZ, 
17920920             An unexpected collision between some of the advanced cavalry on each side in the low ground, 
warned KELLERMAN of the enemy's approach, 
17920920             DUMOURIEZ had not been unobservant of THE—DANGER of his comrade, 
thus isolated and involved;   and 
17920920             DUMOURIEZ had ordered up troops to support KELLERMAN on either flank in THE—EVENT of his being attacked, 
These troops, 
moved forward slowly;  and 
KELLERMAN's army, 
ranged on the plateau of Valmy, 
"projected like a cape into the midst of the lines of the PREUSSEN—bayonets." 
[See Lamartine, 
Hist, 
Girond, 
livre xvii, 
I have drawn much of the ensuing description from him] 
 A thick autumnal mist floated in waves of vapour over the plains and ravines that lay between the two
leaving only the crests and peaks of the hills glittering in the —EARLY, light.
17920920             About ten o'clock the fog began to clear off, 
then THE—FRENCH from their promontory saw emerging from the white wreaths of mist, 
glittering —IN—THE—sunshine,
 the countless PREUSSEN—cavalry which were to envelops them as in a net if once driven from their position, 
 the solid columns of the infantry that moved forward as if animated by a single will, 
the bristling batteries of the artillery,
 and the glancing clouds of the AUSTRIAn light troops, 
fresh from their contests with the Spahis of THE—EAST.
 The best and bravest of THE—FRENCH must have beheld this spectacle with secret apprehension and awe, 
However bold and resolute a man may be in
 the discharge of duty, 
it is an anxious and fearful thing to be called on to encounter danger among comrades of whose steadiness you can feel no certainty, 
 Each soldier of KELLERMAN's army must have remembered the series of panic routs which had hitherto invariably taken place on THE—FRENCH side
             —DURING—THE—WAR;  
 and must have cast restless glances to the right and left, 
to see if any symptoms of wavering began to show
to calculate how long it was likely to be before a general rush of his comrades to the rear would either harry him off with
 involuntary disgrace, 
or leave him alone and helpless, 
to be cut down by assailing multitudes.
 On that very morning, 
at the self-same hour, 
in which the ALLIED—FORCES and the emigrants began to descend from La Lune to the attack of
while the cannonade was opening between the PREUSSEN—and THE—REVOLUTIONary batteries, 
the debate IN—THE—NATIONAL CONVENTION at PARIS
 commenced on the proposal to proclaim FRANCE a Republic.
 The old monarchy had little chance of support in the hall of the CONVENTION, 
 but if its more effective advocates at Valmy had triumphed,
 there were yet the elements existing in FRANCE for a permanent revival
 of the better part of THE—ANCIENT institutions, 
for substituting
 Reform for REVOLUTION, 
Only a few WEEKS BEFORE, 
numerously signed
 addresses from the middle classes in PARIS, 
ROUEN, 
other large
had been presented to the king, 
expressive of their horror of
 the anarchists, 
their readiness to uphold the rights of the crown,
 together with the liberties of the subject, 
an armed resistance
 to the authority of the CONVENTION, 
in favour of the king, 
was in
 reality —AT—THIS—TIME being actively organized in La Vendee and Brittany,
 THE—IMPORTANCE of which may be estimated from the formidable opposition
 which the Royalists of these provinces made to the Republican party, 
 a later period, 
under much more disadvantageous circumstances, 
 a fact peculiarly illustrative of THE—IMPORTANCE of —BATTLE—OF—Valmy,
 that "
17920000             —DURING——THE—SUMMER of , 
the gentlemen of Brittany entered into
 an extensive association for the purpose of rescuing THE—COUNTRY from
 the oppressive yoke which had been imposed by the Parisian demagogues.
 At the HEAD—OF—the whole was THE—MARQUIS—de—la—Rouarie, 
 remarkable men who rise into pre-eminence
             —DURING—the stormy days of
 a REVOLUTION, 
from conscious ability to direct its current, 
Ardent,
 impetuous, 
enthusiastic, 
he was 1, 
distinguished in the American
when the intrepidity of his conduct attracted the admiration of
 the Republican troops, 
the same qualities rendered him at 1, 
 ardent supporter of THE—REVOLUTION—IN—FRANCE, 
 but when the atrocities of
 THE—PEOPLE began, 
he espoused with equal warmth the opposite side, 
 used the utmost efforts to rouse THE—NOBLESse of Brittany against the
 plebeian yoke which had been imposed upon them by THE—NATIONAL—ASSEMBLY.
 He submitted his plan to the Count d'Artois, 
had organized one so
 extensive, 
as would have proved extremely formidable to the CONVENTION,
 if the retreat of THE—DUKE—OF—Brunswick, 
in             17920900             , 
had not
 damped the ardour of the whole of THE—WEST of FRANCE, 
then ready to
 break out into INSURRECTION." 
[Alison—VOLUME—III—PAGE—323]
 And it was not only among the zealots of the old monarchy that the cause
 of the king would then have found friends, 
The ineffable atrocities of
 the             ;;09;; massacres had just occurred, 
the reaction produced
 by them among thousands who had previously been active on the
 ultra-democratic side, 
was fresh and powerful, 
The nobility had NOT—YET
 been made utter aliens in the eyes of the nation by long expatriation
There was NOT—YET a generation of youth educated in
 REVOLUTIONary principles, 
knowing no worship-save that of military
was just and humane, 
deeply sensible of the
 necessity of a gradual extension of political rights among all classes
 of his subjects, 
The BOURBON throne, 
if rescued in 1792, 
would have had
 chances of stability, 
such as did not exist for it in 1814, 
 never likely to be found AGAIN in FRANCE.
 Serving under KELLERMAN on that day was one who experienced, 
perhaps
 the most deeply of all men, 
the changes for good and for evil which the
 FRENCH—REVOLUTION has produced, 
He who, 
in his second exile, 
bore the
 name of the Count de Neuilly in this country, 
who lately was Louis
 PHILIPPE, 
—KING—OF—THE—French, 
figured IN—THE—FRENCH lines at Valmy, 
 a young and gallant officer, 
cool and sagacious beyond his years, 
 trusted accordingly by KELLERMAN and DUMOURIEZ with an important station
 IN—THE—NATIONAL army, 
The DUC—DE—Chartres (the title he then bore)
 commanded THE—FRENCH right, 
GENERAL 
[VALENCIA]VALENCE was on the left, 
 KELLERMAN himself took his post in the centre, 
which was the strength
 and key of his position.
 Besides these celebrated men, 
who were IN—THE—FRENCH—ARMY, 
besides
 the —KING—OF—Prussia, 
THE—DUKE—OF—Brunswick, 
other men of rank and
who were in the lines of THE—ALLIES, 
there was an individual
 present at —BATTLE—OF—Valmy, 
of little political note, 
but who has
 exercised, 
exercises, 
a greater influence over the human mind, 
 whose fame is more widely spread, 
than that of either duke, 
or general,
 or king, 
This was THE—GERMAN—poet, 
Goethe, 
who had, 
out of curiosity,
 accompanied the allied army on its march into FRANCE as a mere
 spectator, 
He has given us a curious record of the sensations which
 he experienced
             —DURING—the cannonade, 
It must be remembered that
 many thousands in, 
THE—FRENCH ranks then, 
like Goethe, 
felt the
 "cannon-fever" for the 1, 
time, 
THE—GERMAN—poet says, 
[Goethe's
 Campaign in FRANCE in 1792, 
Farie's translation, 
p.77]--
 "I had heard so much of the cannon-fever, 
that I wanted to know what
 kind of thing it was, 
ENNUI, 
a spirit which every kind of danger
 excites to daring, 
nay even to rashness, 
induced me to ride up quite
 coolly to the outwork of La Lune, 
This was AGAIN occupied by our people; but it presented the wildest aspect, 
The roofs were shot to pieces; the corn-shocks scattered about, 
the bodies of men mortally wounded
 stretched upon them here and there, 
 and occasionally a spent cannon-ball
 fell and rattled among the ruins of the the roofs.
 "Quite alone, 
left to myself, 
I rode away on the heights to the
could plainly survey the favourable position of THE—FRENCH; they were standing in the form of a semicircle in the greatest quiet and
 security, 
 KELLERMAN, 
then on the left wing, 
being the easiest to reach.
 "I fell in with good company on the way, 
officers of my acquaintance,
 belonging to the general staff and THE—REGIMEnt, 
greatly surprised to
 find me here, 
They wanted to take me back AGAIN with them, 
 but I spoke
 to them of particular objects I had in view, 
they left me without
 further dissuasion, 
to my well-known singular caprice.
 "I had now arrived quite in the region where the balls were playing
 across me: the sound of them is curious enough, 
as if it were composed
 of the humming of tops, 
the gurgling of water, 
the whistling of
 birds, 
They were less dangerous, 
by reason of the wetness of the ground:
 wherever one fell, 
it stuck fast, 
thus my foolish experimental ride
 was secured against THE—DANGER at least of the balls rebounding.
 "In the midst of these circumstances, 
I was soon able to remark that
 something unusual was taking place within me, 
I paid close attention
 to it, 
still the sensation can be described only by similitude, 
 appeared as if you were in some extremely hot place, 
at the same
quite penetrated by the heat of it, 
so that you feel yourself,
 as it were, 
quite one with the element in which you are, 
The eyes lose
 nothing of their strength or clearness, 
 but it is as if THE—WORLD had
 a kind of brown-red tint, 
which makes the —SITUATION, 
 surrounding objects, 
more impressive, 
I was unable to perceive any
 —AGITATION of the blood, 
 but everything seemed rather to be swallowed up
 in the glow of which I speak, 
From this, 
it is clear in what sense
 this condition can be called a fever, 
It is remarkable, 
 the horrible uneasy feeling arising from it is produced in us solely
 through the ears, 
 for the cannon-thunder, 
the howling and crashing of
 the balls through the air, 
is the real cause of these sensations.
 "After I had ridden back, 
was in perfect security, 
I remarked
 with surprise that the glow was completely extinguished, 
 the slightest feverish —AGITATION was left behind, 
On the whole, 
this
 condition is one of the least desirable, 
among my dear and
 noble comrades, 
I found scarcely one who expressed a really passionate
 desire to try it."
 Contrary to the expectations of both friends and foes, 
 infantry held their ground steadily under the fire of the PREUSSEN—guns,
 which thundered on them from La Lune, 
 and their own artillery replied
 with equal spirit and greater effect on the denser masses of the
 allied army, 
Thinking that THE—PRUSSIANS were slackening in their fire,
 KELLERMAN formed a column in charging order, 
dashed down into the
in the hopes of capturing some of the nearest guns of the enemy.
 A masked battery opened its fire on THE—FRENCH column, 
drove it back
 in disorder, 
KELLERMAN having his horse shot under him, 
being with
 difficulty carried off by his men, 
The PREUSSEN—columns now advanced in
 turn, 
THE—FRENCH artillerymen began to waver and desert their posts,
 but were rallied by the efforts and example of their officers, 
reorganizing the line of his infantry, 
took his station in
 the ranks on foot, 
called out to his men to let the enemy come close
then to charge them with the bayonet, 
The troops caught the
 enthusiasm of their general, 
a cheerful shout of VIVE LA NATION!
 taken by one battalion from another, 
pealed across the valley to the
 assailants, 
THE—PRUSSIANS flinched from a charge up-hill against a force
 that seemed so resolute and formidable, 
 they halted for a while in the
 hollow, 
then slowly retreated up their own side of the valley.
 Indignant at being thus repulsed by such a foe, 
the —KING—OF—Prussia
 formed the flower of his men in person, 
riding along the column,
 bitterly reproached them with letting their —STANDARD be thus humiliated.
 Then he led them on AGAIN to the attack marching in the front line,
 and seeing his staff mowed down around him by the deadly fire which the
 French artillery re-opened, 
But the troops sent by DUMOURIEZ were now
 co-operating effectually with KELLERMAN, 
that general's own men,
 flushed by success, 
presented a firmer front than ever, 
AGAIN the
 Prussians retreated, 
leaving 8 hundred dead behind, 
at nightfall
 THE—FRENCH remained victors on the heights of Valmy.
 All hopes of crushing THE—REVOLUTIONary armies, 
of the promenade to
had now vanished, 
though Brunswick lingered long in the Argonne,
 till distress and sickness wasted away his once splendid force,
 and finally but a mere wreck of it recrossed the frontier, 
FRANCE,
 meanwhile, 
felt that she possessed a giant's strength, 
like a giant
 did she use it, 
Before the close of that year, 
all BELGIUM obeyed the
 National CONVENTION at PARIS, 
THE—KINGS—OF—Europe, 
after the lapse
 of 18 centuries, 
trembled once more before a conquering military
 Republic.
 Goethe's description of the cannonade has been quoted, 
His observation
 to his comrades in the camp of THE—ALLIES, 
at the end of the battle,
 deserves citation also, 
It shows that the poet felt (and, 
 alone of the thousands there assembled felt) the full importance of that
He describes the consternation and the change of demeanour which he
 observed among his PREUSSEN—friends that evening, 
he tells us that "most
 of them were silent, 
the power of reflection and judgment
 was wanting to all, 
At last I was called upon to say what I thought of
 the engagement, 
 for I had been in the habit of enlivening and amusing
 the troop with short sayings, 
This time I said: 'FROM THIS PLACE, 
 FROM THIS—DAY FORTH, 
COMMENCES A NEW ERA IN—THE—WORLD'S HISTORY, 
YOU
 CAN ALL SAY THAT YOU WERE PRESENT AT ITS BIRTH.'"
 SYNOPSIS OP EVENTS BETWEEN —BATTLE—OF—VALMY, 
THE —BATTLE—OF
 WATERLOO, 
17930000             , 
Trial and EXECUTION of LOUIS—XVI, 
at PARIS, 
ENGLAND and SPAIN
 declare war against FRANCE, 
Royalist war in La Vendee, 
Second —INVASÃON
 of FRANCE by THE—ALLIES.
17940000             , 
Lord Howe's victory over THE—FRENCH fleet, 
Final partition of
 Poland by Russia, 
Prussia, 
17950000             , 
THE—FRENCH armies under Pichegru, 
conquer HOLLAND, 
Cessation of
 THE—WAR in La Vendee.
17960000             , 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE commands THE—FRENCH—ARMY of ITALY and gains repeated
 victories over the AUSTRIAns.
17970000             , 
VICTORY—OF—Jervis, 
off Cape St, 
PEACE—OF—CAMPO—FORMIO
 between FRANCE and AUSTRIA, 
DEFEAT—OF—the Dutch off Camperdown by
 ADMIRAL—Duncan.
17980000             , 
Rebellion in IRELAND, 
Expedition of THE—FRENCH under NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE to
LORD—NELSON destroys THE—FRENCH fleet at —BATTLE—OF—THE—NILE.
17990000             , 
Renewal of THE—WAR—BETWEEN—AUSTRIA and FRANCE, 
 emperor sends an army IN—AID—OF—AUSTRIA, 
under Suwarrow, 
THE—FRENCH are
 repeatedly defeated in ITALY, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE returns from Egypt and makes
 himself 1, 
KONSUL of FRANCE, 
Massena wins —BATTLE—OF—Zurich, 
 Russian emperor makes PEACE—WITH—France.
18000000             , 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE passes the Alps and defeats the AUSTRIAns at MARENGO.
 MOREAU wins —BATTLE—OF—Hohenlinden.
18010000             , 
TREATY—OF—Luneville between FRANCE and AUSTRIA, 
The —BATTLE—OF—Copenhagen.
18020000             , 
PEACE—OF—Amiens.
18030000             , 
WAR—BETWEEN—England and FRANCE renewed.
18040000             , 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE is made EMPEROR—OF—FRANCE.
18050000             , 
Great preparations of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE to invade ENGLAND, 
 AUSTRIA supported by Russia, 
renews war with FRANCE, 
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE marches into GERMANY,
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE takes Vienna, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE gains —BATTLE—OF—Austerlitz, 
 LORD—NELSON destroys the combined French and Spanish fleets, 
 LORD—NELSON is killed at the —BATTLE—OF—Trafalgar.
18060000             , 
WAR—BETWEEN—Prussia and FRANCE, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE conquers Prussia in the
 —BATTLE—OF—Jena.
18070000             , 
Obstinate warfare between THE—FRENCH and Russian armies in East
 Prussia and Poland, 
PEACE—OF—TILSIT.
18080000             , 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE endeavours to make his brother —KING—OF—Spain, 
Rising
 of the Spanish nation against him, 
ENGLAND sends troops to aid the
Battles of Vimiera and CORUNNA.
18090000             , 
War renewed between FRANCE and AUSTRIA, 
Battles of Asperne and
 Wagram, 
Peace granted to AUSTRIA, 
LORD—WELLINGTON's VICTORY—OF—TALAVERA,
 in SPAIN.
18100000             , 
Marriage of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE and the Arch-duchess MARIA—LOUISA, 
HOLLAND
 annexed to FRANCE.
18120000             , 
WAR—BETWEEN—England and THE—UNITED—STATES, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE invades
 Russia, 
BATTLE—OF—Borodino, 
THE—FRENCH occupy Moscow, 
which is burned.
 Disastrous retreat and almost total destruction of the great army of
18130000             , 
Prussia and AUSTRIA take up arms AGAIN against FRANCE, 
Battles of
 LÜTZEN, 
Bautzen, 
Culm, 
Leipsic, 
THE—FRENCH are driven out
 of GERMANY, 
LORD—WELLINGTON gains the great —BATTLE—OF—Vittoria, 
 completes the rescue of SPAIN from FRANCE.
18140000             , 
THE—ALLIES invade FRANCE on THE—EASTern, 
LORD—WELLINGTON
 invades it on the southern frontier, 
Battles of LAON, 
MONTMIRAIL,
 Arcis-sur-Aube, 
others in the north-east of FRANCE, 
 and of TOULOUSE
PARIS surrenders to THE—ALLIES, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE abdicates.
restoration of the BOURBONs, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE goes to THE—ISLE—OF—Elba,
 which is assigned to him by THE—ALLIES, 
TREATY—OF—GHENT, 
 UNITED—STATES and ENGLAND.
18150000             , 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE suddenly escapes from Elba, 
lands in FRANCE, 
 French soldiery join him and LOUIS—XVIII, 
is obliged to fly from the
 throne.
 CHAPTER—XV, 
-- —BATTLE—OF—WATERLOO, 
 "Thou 1, 
last of fields, 
king-making victory."--BYRON.
 ENGLAND has now been blest with thirty-seven years of peace, 
At no other
 PERIOD—OF—her history can a similarly long cessation from a state of
 warfare be found, 
It is true that our troops have had battles to fight
             —DURING this interval for THE—PROTECTION and extension of our Indian
 possessions and our colonies, 
 but these have been with distant and
 unimportant enemies, 
THE—DANGER has never been brought near our own
 shores, 
no matter of vital importance to our empire has ever been
 at stake, 
We have not had hostilities with either FRANCE, 
America, 
 and when not at war with any of our peers, 
we feel ourselves
 to be substantially at peace, 
There has, 
throughout this long
been no great war, 
like those with which the previoUS—HISTORY
 of modern Europe abounds, 
There have been formidable collisions between
 particular states, 
 and there have been still more formidable collisions
 between THE—ARMED champions of the KONFLIKTing principles of absolutism
 and democracy, 
 but there has been no general war, 
like those of the
 FRENCH—REVOLUTION, 
like the American, 
or the Seven Years' War, 
or like
 THE—WAR—OF—the Spanish Succession, 
It would be far too much to augur
 from this, 
that no similar wars will AGAIN convulse THE—WORLD, 
 value of the PERIOD—OF—peace which Europe has gained, 
is incalculable; even if we look on it as only a truce, 
expect AGAIN to see the
 nations of the earth recur to what some PHILOSOPHers have termed man's
 natural state of warfare.
 No equal number of years can be found,
             —DURING which science, 
commerce,
 and civilization have advanced so rapidly and so extensively, 
as has
 been the case since 1815, 
When we trace their progress, 
especially
 in this country, 
it is impossible not to feel that their wondrous
 development has been mainly due to the land having been at peace, 
 the excellent—INTRODUCTIOn to Mister CHARLES Knight's "HISTORY—OF—the
 Thirty Years' Peace."] 
Their good effects cannot be obliterated, 
 if a series of wars were to recommence, 
When we reflect on this, 
 contrast these thirty-seven years with the period that preceded them,
 a PERIOD—OF—violence, 
of tumult, 
of unrestingly destructive energy,--a
 period —THROUGHOUT which the WEALTH—OF—NATIONS was scattered like sand,
 and the blood of nations lavished like water,--it is impossible not to
 look with deep interest on the final crisis of that dark and dreadful
 epoch, 
 the crisis out of which our own happier cycle of years has been
 evolved, 
The great battle which ended the twenty-3—YEARS' war of
FRENCH—REVOLUTION, 
which quelled the man whose genius and
 ambition had so long disturbed and desolated THE—WORLD, 
deserves to be
 regarded by us, 
not only with peculiar pride, 
as one of our greatest
 national victories, 
but with peculiar gratitude for the repose which it
 secured for us, 
for the greater part of the human race.
 One good test for determining THE—IMPORTANCE of Waterloo, 
is to
 ascertain what was felt by wise and prudent statesmen before that
respecting the return of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE from Elba to the Imperial
 throne of FRANCE, 
the probable effects of his success, 
 this purpose, 
I will quote the words, 
not of any of our vehement
 ANTI—Gallican politicians of the school of Pitt, 
but of a leader of our
 Liberal party, 
of a man whose reputation as a jurist, 
a historian and a
 far-sighted and candid statesman, 
is, 
deservedly high, 
not only
but —THROUGHOUT Europe, 
Sir James Mackintosh, 
 debate in THE—BRITISH HOUSE—OF—COMMONS, 
on the 20th ;;04;;, 
18150000             ,
spoke
 thus of the return from Elba:--
 "Was it in the power of language to describe the evil, 
Wars which had
 raged for more than twenty years —THROUGHOUT Europe, 
 which had
 spread blood and desolation from Cadiz to Moscow, 
from [NEAPEL]NAPLES to
 Copenhagen, 
 which had wasted the means of human enjoyment, 
destroyed
 the instruments of social improvement, 
 which threatened to diffuse among
 THE—EUropean nations, 
the dissolute and ferocious habits of a predatory
 soldiery,--at length, 
by one of those vicissitudes which bid defiance to
 the foresight of man, 
had been brought to a close, 
upon the whole, 
happy
 beyond all reasonable expectation, 
with no violent shock to national
with some tolerable compromise between the opinions of
 THE—AGE and reverence due to ancient institutions, 
 with no too signal or
 mortifying triumph over the legitimate interests or avowable feelings
 of any numerous body of men, 
above all, 
without those retaliations
 against nations or parties, 
which beget new convulsions, 
often as
 horrible as those which they close, 
perpetuate revenge and hatred
 and bloodshed, 
from age to age, 
Europe seemed to breathe after her
 sufferings, 
In the midst of this fair prospect, 
of these consolatory
 hopes, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE escaped from Elba, 
 3 small vessels reached
 THE—COAST—OF—PROVENCE, 
 our hopes are instantly dispelled, 
 the work of
 our toil and fortitude is undone, 
 the blood of Europe is spilt in vain--
 "'Ibi omnis effusus labor!'"
 The CONGRESS of Emperors, 
Kings, 
Princes, 
GENERALs, 
Statesmen, 
 had assembled at Vienna to remodel THE—WORLD after the overthrow of the
 mighty conqueror, 
who thought that NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had passed away for ever
 from the great drama of European politics, 
had NOT—YET completed their
 triumphant festivities, 
their diplomatic toils, 
when Talleyrand,
 on the 11th of March, 
rose up among them, 
announced that the
 ex-emperor had escaped from Elba, 
was EMPEROR—OF—France once more.
 It is recorded by Sir Walter Scott, 
as a curious physiological fact,
 that the 1, 
effect of THE—NEWS of an event which threatened to
 neutralise all their labours, 
was to excite a loud burst of laughter
 from nearly every MEMBER—OF—the CONGRESS, 
[Life of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE—VOLUME—viii.
CHAPTER—I] 
But the jest was a bitter one: and they soon were deeply
 busied in anxious deliberations respecting the mode in which they
 should encounter their arch-enemy, 
who had thus started from torpor and
 obscurity into renovated splendour and strength:
 "Qualis ubi in lucem coluber mala gramina pastus,
 Frigida sub terra tumidum quem bruma tegebat,
 Nunc positis novus exuviis nitidusque juventa,
 Lubrica convolvit sublato pectore terga
 Arduus ad solem, 
at linguis micat ore trisulcis."  Virg, 
AEN.
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE sought to disunite the formidable confederacy, 
which he knew
 would be arrayed against him, 
by endeavouring to negotiate separately
 with each of the allied sovereigns, 
It is said that AUSTRIA and Russia
 were at 1, 
not unwilling to treat with him, 
Disputes and jealousies
 had been rife among several of THE—ALLIES on THE—SUBJECT—OF—the division
 of the conquered countries, 
 and the cordial unanimity with which they
 had acted
             —DURING 1813 and the 1, 
months of 1814, 
had grown
 chill
             —DURING some weeks of discussions, 
But the active exertions of
 Tralleyrand, 
who represented LOUIS—XVIII, 
at the CONGRESS, 
who both
 hated and feared NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE with all the intensity of which his powerful
 spirit was capable, 
prevented the secession of any MEMBER—OF—the
 CONGRESS from the new great league against their ancient enemy, 
Still it
 is highly probable that, 
if NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had triumphed in BELGIUM over
 THE—PRUSSIANS and THE—ENGLISH, 
he would have succeeded in opening
 negotiations with the AUSTRIAns and Russians, 
 and he might have thus
 gained advantages similar to those which he had obtained on his return
 from Egypt, 
when he induced the Czar Paul to withdraw the Russian armies
 from co-operating with the other enemies of FRANCE in the extremity of
 peril to which she seemed reduced in 1799, 
But fortune now had deserted
 him both in diplomacy and in war.
 On the 13th of March, 
the MINISTERs of the seven powers, 
AUSTRIA,
signed a
 manifesto, 
by which they declared NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE an outlaw, 
 and this
 denunciation was instantly followed up by a treaty between ENGLAND,
Russia (to which other powers soon acceded), 
 which THE—RULERS—OF—those countries bound themselves to enforce that
 decree, 
to prosecute THE—WAR until NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE should be driven from
rendered incapable of disturbing the peace of
THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON was the representative of ENGLAND at the
 CONGRESS of Vienna, 
he was immediately applied to for his advice
 on the plan of MILITARY operations against FRANCE, 
It was obvious that
 BELGIUM would be the 1, 
battle-field, 
 and by the general wish of the
THE—ENGLISH Duke proceeded thither to assemble an army from the
 contingents of Dutch, 
Belgian, 
Hanoverian troops, 
that were most
 speedily available, 
from THE—ENGLISH regiments which his own
 Government was hastening to send over from this country, 
A strong
 PREUSSEN—corps was near Aix-la-Chapelle, 
having remained there since
 THE—CAMPAIGN—OF—the preceding year, 
This was largely reinforced by other
 troops of the same nation, 
 and Marshal Blucher, 
the favourite hero of
 the PREUSSEN—soldiery, 
the deadliest foe of FRANCE, 
assumed the
 command of this army, 
which was termed THE—ARMY of the Lower Rhine, 
in conjunction with WELLINGTON's forces, 
was to make the van of
 the armaments of the Allied Powers, 
MeanwhiLE—PRINCE Swartzenburg was to
 collect 130,000 AUSTRIAns, 
124.000 troops of other Germanic States,
 as "THE—ARMY of the Upper Rhine, 
" and 168,000 Russians, 
 command of Barclay de Tolly, 
were to form "THE—ARMY of the Middle
 Rhine," and to repeat the march from Muscovy to that river's banks.
 The exertions which the Allied Powers thus made at this crisis to
 grapple promptly with THE—FRENCH—EMPEROR have truly been termed
 gigantic, 
 and never were NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's genius and activity more signally
 displayed, 
than in the celerity and skill by which he brought forward
 all THE—MILITARY resources of FRANCE, 
which the reverses of the 3
 preceding years, 
the pacific policy of the BOURBONs -DURING             
 the months of their 1, 
restoration, 
had greatly diminished and
 disorganized, 
He re-entered PARIS on the 20th of March, 
by the end
besides sending a force into La Vendee to put down THE—ARMED
 rising of the royalists in that province, 
besides providing troops
 under Massena and Suchet for the defence of the southern frontiers of
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had an army assembled in the north-east for active
 operations under his own command, 
which amounted to between one hundred
 and twenty, 
one hundred and thirty thousand men, 
with a superb park
 of artillery and IN—THE—HIGHest possible state of equipment, 
discipline,
 and efficiency, 
[See for these numbers Siborne's HISTORY—OF—THE—CAMPAIGN
 of Waterloo, 
VOLUME—I—PAGE—41]
 The approach of the multitudinous Russian, 
AUSTRIAn, 
Bavarian, 
 foes of THE—FRENCH—EMPEROR to the Rhine was necessarily slow, 
 two most active of the allied powers had occupied BELGIUM with their
while NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE was organizing his forces, 
Marshal Blucher was
 there with one hundred and sixteen thousand Prussians, 
before the
 end of May, 
THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON was there also with about one hundred
 and 6 thousand troops, 
either British or in British pay, 
[Ibid, 
i.CHAPTER—III, 
WELLINGTON had but a small part of his old PENINSULAr army
 in BELGIUM, 
The flower of it had been sent on the expeditions against
His troops, 
in 1815, 
were chiefly second battalions, 
 regiments lately filled up with new recruits, 
See Scott, 
VOLUME—viii.
474] 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE determined to attack these enemies in BELGIUM, 
 disparity of numbers was indeed great, 
but delay was sure to increase
 the proportionate numerical superiority of his enemies over his own
 ranks, 
THE—FRENCH—EMPEROR considered also that "the enemy's troops were
 now cantoned under the command of two generals, 
composed of nations
 differing both in interest and in feelings." 
[See Montholon's Memoirs,
His own army was under his own sole command, 
It was composed
 exclusively of French soldiers, 
mostly of veterans, 
well acquainted with
 their officers and with each other, 
full of enthusiastic confidence
 in their commander, 
If he could separate THE—PRUSSIANS from THE—BRITISH,
 so as to attack each singly, 
he felt sanguine of success, 
 against these the most resolute of his many adversaries, 
 against the other masses, 
that were slowly labouring up against his
 eastern dominions.
 The triple chain of strong fortresses, 
which THE—FRENCH possessed on the
 Belgian frontier, 
formed a curtain, 
behind which NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE was able to
 concentrate his army, 
to conceal, 
till the very last moment, 
 precise line of attack which he intended to take, 
On the other hand,
 Blucher and WELLINGTON were obliged to canton their troops along a line
 of open country of considerable length, 
so as to watch for the outbreak
 of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE from whichever point of his chain of strongholds he should
 please to make it, 
Blucher, 
with his army, 
occupied THE—BANKs of the
 Sambre and THE—MEUSE, 
from LIEGE on his left, 
to Charleroi on his right; and THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON covered Brussels, 
 his cantonments being
 partly in front of that city and between it and THE—FRENCH frontier, 
 partly on its west their extreme right reaching to Courtray and Tournay,
 while the left approached Charleroi and communicated with the Prussian
It was upon Charleroi that NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE resolved to level his attack,
 in hopes of severing the two allied armies from each other, 
 pursuing his favourite tactic of assailing each separately with a
 superior force on the battle-field, 
though the aggregate of their
 numbers considerably exceeded his own.
French corps d'armee, 
commanded by Count d'Erlon, 
 stationed in—THE—BEGINNING—OF June in and around THE—CITY—OF—LILLE, 
near
 to the north-eastern frontier of FRANCE, 
The second corps, 
under Count
 Reille, 
was at Valenciennes, 
to the right of the 1, 
one, 
The third
 corps, 
under Count VANDAMME, 
was at Mezieres, 
The fourth, 
 GERARD, 
had its HEAD—QUARTERs at METZ, 
the sixth under Count Lobau,
 was at LAON, 
[The fifth corps was under Count Rapp at Strasburg] 
Four
 corps of reserve cavalry, 
under Marshal Grouchy, 
were also near the
between the rivers Aisne and Sambre, 
THE—IMPERIAL—Guard
 remained in PARIS until the 8. of June, 
when it marched towards
reached Avesnes on the 13th, 
 and in the course of the same
 and the following day, 
the 5 corps d'armee with the cavalry reserves
 which have been mentioned, 
were, 
in pursuance of skilfully combined
 orders, 
rapidly drawn together, 
concentrated in and around the
 same place, 
on the right bank of the river Sambre, 
On the 14th NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE
 arrived among his troops, 
who were exulting at the display of their
 commander's skill in the celerity and precision with which they had been
 drawn together, 
in the consciousness of their collective strength.
 Although NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE too often permitted himself to use language unworthy
 of his own character respecting his great English adversary, 
his real
 feelings in commencing this campaign may be judged from the last words
 which he spoke, 
as he threw himself into his travelling carriage to
 leave PARIS for THE—ARMY, 
"I go," he said, 
"to measure myself with
 WELLINGTON."
18150614             The enthusiasm of THE—FRENCH soldiers at seeing their FRENCH—EMPEROR among them, was still more excited by the "ORDER—OF—THE—day," in which he thus appealed to them:
18150614             "NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, by the Grace of God, and, THE—CONSTITUTION of THE—EMPIRE, EMPEROR—OF—THE—FRENCH, &c, to the Grand Army.
18150614             "AT THE—IMPERIAL—HEAD—QUARTERS, AVESNES.
18150614             "Soldiers!  
18150614             THIS—DAY is THE—ANNIVERSARY—OF—MARENGO and of FRIEDLAND, which twice decided the destiny of Europe, 
Then, as after Austerlitz, 
as after Wagram, 
we were too generous!  
We believed in the protestations and in the oaths of princes, whom we left on their thrones, 
18150614             Now, however, leagued together, they aim at the independence and the most sacred rights of FRANCE, 
They have commenced the most unjust of aggressions, 
Let us, then, march to meet them, 
Are they and we no longer the same men?
 "Soldiers!  
at JENA, 
against these same Prussians, 
now so arrogant, 
 were one to 3, 
at MONTMIRAIL one to 6!
 "Let those among you who have been captives to THE—ENGLISH, 
describe the
 nature of their prison ships, 
the frightful miseries they endured.
 "The Saxons, 
the Belgians, 
the Hanoverians, 
the soldiers of the
 Confederation of the Rhine, 
lament that they are compelled to use their
 arms in the cause of princes, 
the enemies of justice and of the rights
 of all nations, 
They know that this coalition is insatiable!  
After
 having devoured twelve millions of Poles, 
twelve millions of Italians,
 one million of Saxons, 
6—MILLIONs of Belgians, 
it now wishes to
 devour THE—STATES—OF—the second rank in GERMANY.
 "Madmen!  
one moment of prosperity has bewildered them, 
The oppression
 and the humiliation of THE—FRENCH people are beyond their power, 
If they
 enter FRANCE they will there find their grave.
we have forced marches to make, 
battles to fight, 
dangers
 to encounter, 
with firmness victory will, 
be ours, 
The rights, 
 honour, 
the happiness of THE—COUNTRY will be recovered!
 "To every Frenchman who has a heart, 
the moment is now arrived to
 conquer or to die.
 "NAPOLÉON."
 "THE MARSHAL DUKE—OF—DALMATIA, 
MAJOR GENERAL."
 The 15th of June had scarcely dawned before THE—FRENCH—ARMY was in
 motion for the decisive campaign, 
crossed the frontier in 3
 columns, 
which were pointed upon Charleroi and its vicinity, 
 line of advance upon Brussels, 
which city NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE resolved to occupy,
 thus lay right through the centre of the cantonments of THE—ALLIES.
 Much criticism has been expended on the supposed surprise of
 WELLINGTON's army in its cantonments by NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's rapid advance, 
 comments would hardly have been made if sufficient attention had been
 paid to the geography of the Waterloo campaign, 
 and if it had been
 remembered that THE—PROTECTION—OF—Brussels was justly considered by
 the allied generals a matter of primary importance, 
If NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE could, either by manoeuvring or fighting, have succeeded in occupying that city, 
the greater part of BELGIUM would unquestionably have declared in NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE his favour, and
AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE—CAMPAIGN, the results of such a success, gained by THE—EMPEROR 
might have decisively influenced the whole after-current of events, 
A glance at the map will show the numerous roads that lead from the different fortresses on THE—FRENCH north-eastern frontier, 
converge upon Brussels, 
 any one of which
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE might have chosen for the advance of a strong force upon that city, 
THE—DUKE's army was judiciously arranged, 
so as to enable him to concentrate troops on any one of these roads sufficiently in advance of Brussels to check an assailing enemy, 
THE—ARMY was kept thus available for movement in any necessary direction, 
till certain intelligence arrived on the 15th of June that THE—FRENCH had crossed the frontier in large force near Thuin, 
that they had driven back the PREUSSEN—advanced troops under GENERAL Ziethen, 
were also moving across the Sambre upon Charleroi.
 Marshal Blucher now rapidly concentrated his forces, 
calling them in from the left upon Ligny, which is to the north-east of Charleroi.
 WELLINGTON also drew his troops together, calling them in from the right, 
EVEN NOW, though it was certain that THE—FRENCH were in large
 force at Charleroi it was unsafe for THE—ENGLISH general to place his
 army directly between that place and Brussels, 
until it was certain that
 no corps of the enemy was marching upon Brussels by THE—WESTern road
 through Mons and Hal, 
THE—DUKE therefore, 
collected his troops in
 Brussels and its immediate vicinity, 
ready to move due southward upon
 4 Bras, 
co-operate with Blucher, 
who was taking his station at
 Ligny: but also ready to meet and defeat any manoeuvre, 
that the enemy
 might make to turn the right of THE—ALLIES, 
occupy Brussels by
 a flanking movement, 
The testimony of the PREUSSEN—general, 
Baron
 Muffling, 
who was attached to THE—DUKE's staff
             —DURING—THE—CAMPAIGN, 
 who expressly states THE—REASONs on which THE—ENGLISH general acted,
 ought for ever to have silenced the "weak inventions of the enemy"
 about THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON having been deceived and surprised by his
which some writers of our own nation, 
as well as foreigners,
 have incautiously repeated, 
[See "Passages from my Life and Writings,"
 by Baron Muffling—PAGE—224 of THE—ENGLISH Translation, 
edited by Col.
 YORKe, 
See also the 178. number of the QUARTERLY, 
It is strange that
 Lamartine should, 
after the appearance of Muffling's work, 
have repeated
 in his "HISTORY—OF—the Restoration" the myth of WELLINGTON having been
 surprised IN—THE—BRUSSELS ball-room, 
&c]
 It was about 3 o'clock in the afternoon of the 15th, 
that a Prussian
 officer reached Brussels, 
whom GENERAL Ziethen had sent to Muffling
 to inform him of the advance of the main FRENCH—ARMY upon Charleroi.
 Muffling immediately communicated this to THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON, 
 asked him whether he would now concentrate his army, 
what would
 be his point of concentration, 
 observing that Marshal Blucher in
 consequence of this intelligence would certainly concentrate the
 Prussians at Ligny, 
THE—DUKE replied--"If all is as GENERAL Ziethen
 supposes, 
I will concentrate on my left wing, 
so be in readiness to
 fight in conjunction with the PREUSSEN—army, 
Should, 
a portion
 of the enemy's force come by Mons, 
I must concentrate more towards my
 centre, 
This is THE—REASON why I must wait for positive news from Mons
 before I fix the rendezvous, 
Since, 
it is certain that the
 troops MUST march, 
though it is uncertain upon what precise spot they
 must march, 
I will order all to be in readiness, 
will direct a
 brigade to move at once towards 4 Bras." 
[Muffling—PAGE—231]
 Later —IN—THE—same day a message from Blucher himself was delivered to
in which the PREUSSEN—Field-Marshal informed the Baron that he
 was concentrating his men at Sombref and Ligny, 
charged Muffling to
 give him speedy intelligence respecting the concentration of WELLINGTON.
 Muffling immediately communicated this to THE—DUKE, 
who expressed his
 satisfaction with Blucher's arrangements, 
but added that he could not
 even then resolve upon his own point of concentration before he obtained
 the desired intelligence from Mons, 
About midnight this information
 arrived, 
THE—DUKE went to the quarters of GENERAL Muffling, 
told
 him that he now had received his reports from Mons, 
was sure that
 no French troops were advancing by that route, 
but that the mass of
 the enemy's force was decidedly directed on Charleroi, 
He informed the
 PREUSSEN—general that he had ordered THE—BRITISH troops to move forward
 upon 4 Bras, 
 but with characteristic coolness and sagacity resolved
 not to give the appearance of alarm by hurrying on with them himself, 
A ball was to be given by THE—DUCHESS—OF—Richmond at Brussels that night,
 and THE—DUKE proposed to GENERAL Muffling that they should go to the ball for a few hours, 
ride forward in the morning to overtake the troops at 4 Bras.
 To hundreds, 
who were assembled at that memorable ball, 
THE—NEWS that
 the enemy was advancing, 
thAT—THE—TIME for battle had come, 
must have been a fearfully exciting surprise, 
the magnificent stanzas of Byron are as true as they are beautiful, 
 but THE—DUKE and his principal officers knew well the stern termination to that festive scene which was approaching, 
One by one, 
in such a way as to attract as little observation as possible, the leaders of the various corps left the ball-room, 
took their stations at the HEAD—OF—their men, who were pressing forward through the last hours of the short summer night to the arena of anticipated slaughter.
[There was a sound of revelry by night,
 And BELGIUM's capital had gather'd then Her Beauty and her chivalry, 
bright The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men; A thousand hearts beat happily, 
 and when Music arose with its voluptuous swell,
 Soft eyes look'd love to eyes which spake AGAIN,
 And all went merry as a marriage bell; But hush! hark!  
 a deep sound strikes like a rising knell,
 Did ye not hear it?--No, 
 'twas but, 
 the wind,
 Or the car rattling o'er the stony street; On with the dance!  
 let joy be unconfined; No sleep till morn, 
when Youth and Pleasure meet
 To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet--
hark!--that heavy sound breaks in once more,
 As if the clouds its echo would repeat; And nearer, 
clearer, 
deadlier than before!
 Arm!  
 it is--it is--the cannon's opening roar!
 Within a window'd niche of that high hall
 Sate Brunswick's fated chieftain, 
 he did hear
 That sound the 1, 
amidst the festival,
 And caught its tone with Death's prophetic ear; And when they smiled because he deem'd it near,
 His heart more truly knew that peal too well
 Which stretch'd his father on a bloody bier,
 And roused the vengeance blood alone could quell; He rush'd into the field, 
foremost fighting, 
fell.
 Ah!  
 then and there was hurrying to and fro,
 And gathering tears, 
tremblings of distress,
 And cheeks all pale, 
which but an hour ago
 Blush'd at the praise of their own loveliness; And there were sudden partings, 
such as press
 The life from out young hearts, 
choking sighs
 Which ne'er might be repeated, 
 who could guess
 If ever more should meet those mutual eyes,
 Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise!
 And there was mounting in hot haste:  the steed,
 The mustering squadron, 
the clattering car,
 Went pouring forward with impetuous speed,
 And swiftly forming in the ranks of war; And the deep thunder peal on peal afar; And near, 
the beat of the alarming drum
 Roused up the soldier ere THE—MORNING—STAR; While thronged the citizens with terror dumb,
 Or whispering, 
with white lips--"The foe!
 They come!  
they come!"
 And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves,
 Dewy with nature's teardrops, 
as they pass,
 Grieving, 
if aught inanimate e'er grieves,
 Over the unreturning brave,--alas!
 Ere evening to be trodden like the grass
 Which now beneath them, 
but above shall grow
 In its next verdure, 
when this fiery mass
 Of living valour, 
rolling on the foe
 And burning with high hope, 
shall moulder cold and low.
 Last noon beheld them full of lusty life,
 Last eve in Beauty's circle proudly gay,
 The midnight brought the signal-sound of strife,
 The morn the marshalling in arms,--THE—DAY
 Battle's magnificently stern array!
 The thunder-clouds close o'er it, 
which when rent
 The earth is covered thick with other clay,
 Which her own clay shall cover, 
heaped and pent,
 Rider and horse,--friend, 
foe,--in one red burial blent]
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's operations on the 16th had been conducted with signal skill
 and vigour, 
 and their results had been very advantageous for his plan of
 THE—CAMPAIGN, 
With his army formed in 3 vast columns, 
[VICTOIREs et
 Conquetes des Francais—VOLUME—xxv—PAGE—177] 
he had struck at the centre
 of the line of cantonments of his allied foes, 
 and he had so far made
 good his blow, 
that he had affected the —PASSAGE of the Sambre, 
 beaten with his left wing the PREUSSEN—corps of GENERAL Ziethen at
 Thuin, 
with his centre he had in person advanced right through
 Charleroi upon FLEURUS, 
inflicting considerable loss upon THE—PRUSSIANS
 that fell back before him, 
His right column had with little opposition
 moved forward as far as the bridge of Chatelet.
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had thus a powerful force immediately in front of the point
 which Blucher had fixed for the concentration of the PREUSSEN—army, 
 that concentration was still incomplete, 
THE—FRENCH—EMPEROR designed
 to attack THE—PRUSSIANS on the morrow in person, 
with the troops of his
 centre and right columns, 
to employ his left wing in beating back
 such English troops as might advance to the help of their allies, 
 also in aiding his own attack upon Blucher, 
He gave the command of this left wing to Marshal Ney, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE seems not to have originally intended to employ this celebrated GENERAL IN—THE—CAMPAIGN, 
18150611             —ON—THE—NIGHT—OF—THE, It was only, that MARSHAL—NEY received at PARIS an order to join THE—ARMY, 
18150611             —ON—THE—NIGHT—OF—THE, MARSHAL—NEY Hurrying forward to the Belgian frontier, 
he met THE—EMPEROR near Charleroi, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE immediately directed him to take the
 command of the left wing, 
to press forward with it upon 4 Bras
 by the line of the road which leads from Charleroi to Brussels, 
the road which leads through Gosselies, 
the road which leads through Frasne, 
the road which leads through 4 Bras, 
the road which leads through Genappe, and, 
the road which leads through Waterloo, 
Ney immediately
 proceeded to the post assigned him, and before ten on the night of the
 15th he had occupied Gosselies and Frasne, 
driving out without much
 difficulty some weak Belgian detachments which had been stationed in
 those villages, 
The lateness of the hour, 
the exhausted state of THE—FRENCH TROOPS, 
SINCE TEN IN THE MORNING, THE—FRENCH TROOPS had been marching and fighting 
made him pause from advancing further to attack the much more
 important position of 4 Bras, 
In truth, 
18150615             —THROUGHOUT THE LONG DAY OF THE the advantages which THE—FRENCH gained by their almost superhuman energy and activity 
were necessarily bought at the price of more delay and inertness
18150615—18150616    —DURING—THE FOLLOWING NIGHT AND MORROW, 
than would have been observable if they had not been thus overtasked, 
Ney has been blamed for want of promptness in his attack upon 4 Bras, and
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE has been criticised for not having fought at Ligny 
;;0616             BEFORE THE AFTERNOON OF THE : but 
their censors should remember that soldiers are but men, and 
that there must be necessarily some interval of time, before troops, that have been worn and weakened by 20—HOURS of incessant fatigue and strife, 
can be fed, 
rested, 
reorganized, 
 brought AGAIN into ACTION with any hope of success.
 Having 
;;0615             —;;0616;; on the night of the 15th placed the most advanced of THE—FRENCH under his command in position in front of Frasne, 
Ney rode back to CHARLEROI, 
ABOUT MIDNIGHT, CHARLEROI where NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE also arrived 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE having returned from directing THE—OPERATIONs of the centre and right column of THE—FRENCH 
TILL TWO IN THE MORNING, THE—EMPEROR and the Marshal supped together, and, remained in earnest conversation 
AN HOUR OR TWO AFTERWARDS
 NEY rode back to FRASNE, 
FRASNE where Ney endeavoured to collect tidings of the numbers and movements of the enemy in front of him, and also
NEY busied himself in the necessary duty of learning the amount and composition of the troops which NEY himself was commanding, 
NEY had been so suddenly appointed to his high station, 
that NEY did not know the strength of the several regiments under NEY, or even the names of their commanding officers, 
-NOW NEY caused his aides-de-camp to prepare the requisite returns, and, 
-NOW NEY drew together the troops, whom he was thus learning before he used them.
18150616             —TILL ABOUT 3 O'CLOCK IN THE MORNING OF THE 16TH, WELLINGTON remained at THE—DUCHESS—OF—Richmond's ball at Brussels 
"showing himself very cheerful" as Baron Muffling, 
who accompanied him, observes, 
[Muffling, p, 233] 
18150616             —AT 5 O'CLOCK THE—DUKE and the Baron were on horseback, and
18150616             —ABOUT ELEVEN, reached the position at 4 Bras 
As THE—FRENCH who were in front of Frasne, were perfectly quiet, and, 
THE—DUKE was informed that a very large force under NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE in person was menacing Blucher,
 it was thought possible that only a slight detachment of THE—FRENCH was posted at Frasne in order to mask THE—ENGLISH army, 
In that event WELLINGTON, as he told Baron Muffling, 
would be able to employ his whole
 strength in supporting THE—PRUSSIANS: and 
 he proposed to ride across from 4 Bras to Blucher's position, 
in order to concert with him
 personally the measures which should be taken in order to bring on
 a decisive battle with THE—FRENCH 
WELLINGTON and Muffling rode
 accordingly towards Ligny, 
found Marshal Blucher and his staff
 at the windmill of Bry, 
near that village, 
The PREUSSEN—army, 
80,000
was drawn up chiefly along a chain of heights, 
with the villages
 of Sombref, 
Amand, 
Ligny in their front, 
These villages were
 strongly occupied by PREUSSEN—detachments, 
formed the keys of
 Blucher's position, 
The heads of the columns which NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE was forming
 for the attack, 
were visible in the distance, 
THE—DUKE asked Blucher
 and GENERAL Gneisenau (who was Blucher's adviser in matters of strategy)
 what they wished him to do, 
Muffling had ALREADY explained to them in
 a few words THE—DUKE's earnest desire to support the Field-Marshal, 
 that he would do all that they wished, 
provided they did not ask him to
 divide his army, 
which was contrary to his principles, 
THE—DUKE wished
 to advance with his army (as soon as it was concentrated) upon Frasne
 and Gosselies, 
thence to move upon NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's flank and rear, 
 PREUSSEN—leaders preferred that he should march his men from 4 Bras
 by the NAMUR road, 
so as to form a reserve in rear of Blucher's army.
 THE—DUKE replied, 
"Well, 
I will come if I am not attacked myself," and
 galloped back with Muffling to 4 Bras, 
where THE—FRENCH attack was
 now actually raging.
 Marshal Ney began the battle about two o'clock in the afternoon, 
He had
 —AT—THIS—TIME in hand about 16,000 infantry, 
nearly 2,000 cavalry, 
38
 guns, 
The force which NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE nominally placed at his command exceeded
 40,000—MEN, 
But more than one half of these consisted of the 1.
 French corps d'armee, 
under Count d'Erlon, 
 and Ney was deprived of the
 use of this corps AT—THE—TIME that he most required it, 
in consequence
 of its receiving orders to march to the aid of THE—EMPEROR at Ligny, 
 magnificent body of heavy cavalry under KELLERMAN, 
nearly 5,000 strong,
 and several more battalions of artillery were added to Ney's army
             —DURING—the —BATTLE—OF—Quatre Bras, 
 but his effective infantry force never
 exceeded 16,000.
 When the battle began, 
the greater part of THE—DUKE's army was yet on
 its march towards 4 Bras from Brussels and the other parts of
 its cantonments, 
The force of THE—ALLIES, 
actually in position there,
 consisted only of a Dutch and Belgian DIVISION—OF—infantry, 
not quite
 7,000 strong, 
with one battalion of foot, 
one of horse-artillery.
 THE—PRINCE—OF—Orange commanded them, 
A wood, 
called the Bois de Bossu,
 stretched along the right (or western) flank of the position of Quatre
 Bras, 
 a farmhouse and building, 
called Gemiancourt, 
stood on some
 elevated ground in its front, 
 and to the left (or east), 
 the inclosures of THE—VILLAGE—OF—Pierremont, 
THE—PRINCE—OF—Orange
 endeavoured to secure these posts, 
 but Ney carried Gemiancourt in
Pierremont on THE—EAST, 
gained OCCUPATION—OF—he
 southern part of the wood of Bossu, 
He ranged THE—CHIEF part of his
 artillery on THE—HIGH ground of Gemiancourt, 
whence it played —THROUGHOUT
 the ACTION with most destructive effect upon THE—ALLIES, 
He was pressing
 forward to further advantages, 
when the fifth infantry division under
 Sir THOMAS Picton and THE—DUKE—OF—Brunswick's corps appeared upon the
 scene, 
WELLINGTON (who had returned to 4 Bras from his interview
 with Blucher shortly before THE—ARRIVAL—OF—these forces) restored the
 fight with them, 
as fresh troops of THE—ALLIES arrived, 
they were
 brought forward to stem the fierce attacks which Ney's columns and
 squadrons continued to make with unabated gallantry and zeal, 
The only
 cavalry of the anglo-allied army that reached 4 Bras -DURING             
 the ACTION, 
consisted of Dutch and Belgians, 
a small force of
 Brunswickers, 
under their Duke, 
who was killed on the field, 
 proved wholly unable to encounter KELLERMAN's cuirassiers and Pire's
 lancers, 
 the Dutch and Belgian infantry also gave way —EARLY, in the
 engagement, 
 so that the whoLE—BRUNt of the battle fell on THE—BRITISH
 and German infantry, 
They sustained it nobly, 
Though repeatedly charged
 by THE—FRENCH cavalry, 
though exposed to the murderous fire of the
 French batteries, 
which from the heights of Gemiancourt sent shot and
 shell into the devoted squares whenever THE—FRENCH horseman withdrew,
 they not only repelled their assailants, 
but Kempt's and Pack's
 brigades, 
led, 
on by Picton, 
actually advanced against and through their
 charging foes, 
with stern determination made good to the end of the
 day the ground which they had thus boldly won, 
Some, 
 British regiments were
             —DURING—the confusion assailed by THE—FRENCH
 cavalry before they could form squares, 
suffered severely, 
One
 regiment, 
the 92d, 
was almost wholly destroyed by the cuirassiers, 
 French private soldier, 
named Lami, 
of the 8. regiment of cuirassiers,
 captured one of THE—ENGLISH colours, 
presented it to Ney, 
It was a
 solitary trophy, 
THE—ARRIVAL—OF—THE—ENGLISH Guards about half-past 6
 o'clock, 
enabled THE—DUKE to recover the wood of Bossu, 
which THE—FRENCH
 had almost entirely won, 
THE—POSSESSION—OF—which by them would have
 enabled Ney to operate destructively upon the allied flank and rear.
 Not only was the wood of Bossu recovered on THE—BRITISH right, 
 inclosures of Pierremont were also carried on the left, 
When night set
 IN—THE—FRENCH had been driven back on all points towards Frasne, 
 they still held the farm of Gemiancourt in front of THE—DUKE's centre.
 WELLINGTON and Muffling were unacquainted with the result of the
 collateral battle between Blucher and NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
the cannonading of which
 had been distinctly audible at 4 Bras —THROUGHOUT the afternoon and
 evening, 
THE—DUKE observed to Muffling, 
that of course the two Allied
 armies would assume the offensive against the enemy on the morrow, 
 consequently, 
it would be better to capture the farm at once, 
instead
 of waiting till next morning, 
Muffling agreed IN—THE—DUKE's views and
 Gemiancourt was forthwith attacked by THE—ENGLISH and captured with
 little loss to its assailants, 
[Muffling—PAGE—242]
 Meanwhile THE—FRENCH and THE—PRUSSIANS had been fighting in and round
 the villages of Ligny, 
Sombref, 
Armand, 
from 3 in the
 afternoon to nine in the evening, 
with a savage inveteracy almost
 unparalleled in modern warfare, 
Blucher had in the field, 
when he began
83,417—MEN, 
224 guns, 
Bulow's corps, 
which was 25,000
had not joined him, 
 but the Field-Marshal hoped to be reinforced
 by it, 
or by THE—ENGLISH army before the end of the ACTION, 
But Bulow,
 through some error in the transmission of orders, 
was far in the rear; and THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON was engaged, 
as we have seen, 
with Marshal
 Ney, 
Blucher received —EARLY, warning from Baron Muffling that THE—DUKE
 could not come to his assistance, 
as Muffling observes, 
WELLINGTON
 rendered THE—PRUSSIANS the great SERVICE—OF—occupying more than 40,000
 of the enemy, 
who otherwise would have crushed Blucher's right flank.
 For, 
not only did the KONFLIKT at 4 Bras detaIN—THE—FRENCH troops
 which actually took part in it, 
but d'Erlon received orders from Ney to
 join him, 
which hindered d'Erlon from giving effectual aid to NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE.
 Indeed, 
the whole of d'Erlon's corps, 
in consequence of KONFLIKTing
 directions from Ney and THE—EMPEROR, 
marched and countermarched, 
 the 16th, 
between 4 Bras and Ligny without firing a shot in either
 battle.
 Blucher had, 
a superiority of more than 12,000 in number over
 THE—FRENCH—ARMY that attacked him at Ligny, 
The numerical difference was
 even greater at—THE—BEGINNING—OF the battle, 
as Lobau's corps did not
 come up from Charleroi till 8 o'clock, 
After 5—HOURS and a half
 of desperate and long-doubtful struggle, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE succeeded in breaking
 the centre of the PREUSSEN—line at Ligny, 
in forcing his obstinate
 antagonists off the field of battle, 
The issue was attributable to his
not to any want of spirit or resolution on the part of
 the PREUSSEN—troops, 
 nor did they, 
though defeated, 
abate one jot in
heart, 
or hope, 
As Blucher observed, 
it was a battle in
 which his army lost THE—DAY but not its honour, 
THE—PRUSSIANS retreated
             —DURING—the night of the 16th, 
the —EARLY, part of the 17th, 
 perfect regularity and steadiness, 
The retreat was directed not towards
 Maestricht, 
where their principal depots were established, 
 towards Wavre, 
so as to be able to maintain their communication with
 WELLINGTON's army, 
still follow out the original plan of the
The heroism with which THE—PRUSSIANS endured and repaired
 their defeat at Ligny, 
is more glorious than many victories.
 The messenger who was sent to inform WELLINGTON of the retreat of the
 PREUSSEN—army, 
was shot on the way, 
 and it was not until the morning of
 the 17th that THE—ALLIES, 
at 4 Bras, 
knew the result of the battle
 of Ligny, 
THE—DUKE was ready at daybreak to take the offensive
 against the enemy with vigour, 
his whole army being by that time fully
 assembled, 
But on learning that Blucher had been defeated, 
a different
 course of ACTION was clearly necessary, 
It was obvious that NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's
 main army would now be directed against WELLINGTON, 
a retreat was
On ascertaining that the PREUSSEN—army had retired upon
 Wavre, 
that there was no hot pursuit of them by THE—FRENCH 
 Bulow's corps had taken no part in the ACTION at Ligny, 
 resolved to march his army back towards Brussels, 
still intending to
 cover that city, 
to halt at a point in a line with Wavre, 
 restore his communication with Blucher, 
An officer from Blucher's army
 reached THE—DUKE about nine o'clock, 
from whom he learned the effective
 strength that Blucher still possessed, 
how little discouraged his
 ally was by the YESTERDAY's battle, 
WELLINGTON sent word to the Prussian
 commander that he would halt in the position of Mont St, 
Jean, 
 accept a general battle with THE—FRENCH 
if Blucher would pledge himself
 to come to his assistance with a single corps of 25,000—MEN, 
 readily promised, 
 and after allowing his men ample time for rest and
 refreshment, 
WELLINGTON retired over about half the space between Quatre
 Bras and Brussels, 
He was pursued, 
but little molested, 
by the main
 FRENCH—ARMY, 
which about noon of the 17th moved laterally from Ligny,
 and joined Ney's forces, 
which had advanced through 4 Bras when the
 British abandoned that position, 
The Earl of Uxbridge, 
with THE—BRITISH
covered the retreat of THE—DUKE's army, 
with great skill and
 gallantry, 
 and a heavy thunderstorm, 
with torrents of rain, 
impeded the
 operations of THE—FRENCH pursuing squadrons, 
THE—DUKE still expected
 that THE—FRENCH would endeavour to turn his right, 
march upon
 Brussels by THE—HIGH road that leads through Mons and Hal, 
In order to
 counteract this anticipated manoeuvre, 
he stationed a force of 18,000
under PRINCE—FREDERICK of THE—NETHERLANDS, 
at Hal, 
with orders to
 maintain himself there if attacked, 
as long as possible, 
THE—DUKE halted
 with the rest of his army at the position near Mont St, 
 from a village in its neighbourhood, 
has received the ever-memorable
 name of the field of Waterloo.
 WELLINGTON was now about twelve miles distant, 
on a line running
 from west to east, 
from Wavre, 
where the PREUSSEN—army had now been
 completely reorganised and collected, 
where it had been strengthened
 by the junction of Bulow's troops, 
which had taken no part in the battle
Blucher sent word from Wavre to THE—DUKE, 
that he was coming
 to help THE—ENGLISH at Mont St, 
in the morning, 
not with one
but with his whole army, 
The fiery old man only stipulated that
 the combined armies, 
if not attacked by NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE on the 18., 
 themselves attack him on the 19th, 
So far were Blucher and his army from
 being IN—THE—STATE—OF—annihilation described in the boastful bulletin by
 which NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE informed the Parisians of his VICTORY—AT—Ligny, 
 THE—FRENCH—EMPEROR seems himself to have been misinformed as to the
 extent of loss which he had inflicted on THE—PRUSSIANS, 
Had he known in
 what good order and with what undiminished spirit they were retiring, 
 would scarcely have delayed sending a large force to press them in their
 retreat until noon on the 17th, 
was the case, 
 about that time that he confided to Marshal Grouchy the duty of pursuing
 the defeated Prussians, 
preventing them from joining WELLINGTON, 
 placed for this purpose 32,000—MEN and 96 guns under his orders, 
Violent
 complaints and recriminations passed afterwards between THE—EMPEROR and
 the marshal respecting the manner in which Grouchy attempted to perform
 this duty, 
THE—REASONs why he failed on the 18. to arrest the
 lateral movement of THE—PRUSSIANS from Wavre to Waterloo, 
 sufficient to remark here, 
that the force which NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE gave to Grouchy
 (though the utmost that THE—EMPEROR's limited means would allow) was
 insufficient to make head against the entire PREUSSEN—army, 
 after Bulow's junction with Blucher, 
We shall presently have occasion to
 consider what opportunities were given to Grouchy
             —DURING—the 18th, 
 what he might have effected if he had been a man of original military
 genius.
 But the failure of Grouchy was in truth mainly owing to the indomitable
 heroism of Blucher himself, 
though he had received severe personal
 injuries IN—THE—BATTLE—OF—Ligny, 
was as energetic and ready as ever in
 bringing his men into ACTION AGAIN, 
who had THE—RESOLUTION to expose
 a part of his army, 
under Thielman, 
to be overwhelmed by Grouchy at
 Wavre on the 18th, 
while he urged the march of the mass of his troops
 upon Waterloo, 
"It is not at Wavre, 
but at Waterloo," said the old
 Field-Marshal, 
"that THE—CAMPAIGN is to be decided, 
" and he risked a
won THE—CAMPAIGN accordingly, 
WELLINGTON and Blucher
 trusted each other as cordially, 
co-operated as zealously, 
 formerly had been the case with Marlborough and Eugene, 
It was in full
 reliance on Blucher's promise to join him that THE—DUKE stood his ground
 and fought at Waterloo, 
 and those who have ventured to impugn the
 Duke's capacity as a general, 
ought to have had common-sense enough to
 perceive, 
that to charge THE—DUKE with having won —BATTLE—OF—Waterloo
 by the help of THE—PRUSSIANS, 
is really to say that he won it by the
 very means on which he relied, 
without the expectation of which the
 battle would not have been fought.
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE himself has found fault with WELLINGTON for not having
 retreated further, 
so as to complete a junction of his army with
 Blucher's before he risked a general engagement, 
[See Montholon's
 Memoirs, 
VOLUME—IV—PAGE—44] 
THE—DUKE justly
 considered it important to protect Brussels, 
He had reason to expect
 that his army could singly resist THE—FRENCH at Waterloo until the
 Prussians came up, 
on THE—PRUSSIANS joining, 
there would be
 a sufficient force united under himself and Blucher for completely
 overwhelming the enemy, 
while NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE thus censures his great
 adversary, 
he involuntarily bears THE—HIGHest possible testimony to
 THE—MILITARY character of THE—ENGLISH, 
proves decisively of what
 paramount importance was the battle to which he challenged his fearless
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE asks, 
"IF THE—ENGLISH ARMY HAD BEEN BEATEN AT
WHAT WOULD HAVE BEEN THE—USE—OF—THOSE NUMEROUS BODIES OF
 TROOPS, 
OF PRUSSIANS, 
AUSTRIANS, 
GERMANS, 
SPANIARDS, 
WHICH WERE
 ADVANCING BY FORCED MARCHES TO THE RHINE, 
THE ALPS, 
THE—PYRENEES?"
[Ibid]
 The strength of THE—ARMY under THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON at Waterloo was
 49,608 infantry, 
12,402 cavalry, 
5,645 artillerymen with 156 guns.
[Siborne, 
VOLUME—I—PAGE—376] 
But of this total of 67,655—MEN, 
scarcely
 24.000 were British, 
a circumstance of very serious importance, 
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's own estimate of the relative value of troops of different
 nations is to be taken, 
IN—THE—EMPEROR's own words, 
speaKING—OF—this
"A French soldier would not be equal to more than one English
but he would not be afraid to meet two Dutchmen, 
Prussians, 
 soldiers of the Confederation." 
[Montholon's Memoirs, 
VOLUME—IV—PAGE—41]
 There were about 6,000—MEN of the old German Legion with THE—DUKE, 
 these
 were veteran troops, 
of excellent quality, 
Of the rest of the
 army the Hanoverians and Brunswickers proved themselves deserving of
 confidence and praise, 
But the Nassauers, 
Dutch, 
Belgians were
 almost worthless, 
 and not a few of them were justly suspected of a
 strong wish to fight, 
if they fought at all, 
under THE—FRENCH eagles
 rather than against them.
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's army at Waterloo consisted of 48,950 infantry, 
15,765
7,232 artillerymen, 
being a total of 71,947—MEN, 
246 guns.
[See Siborne, 
UT SUPRA] 
They were the flower of THE—NATIONAL forces of
 and of all the numerous gallant armies which that martial land
 has poured forth, 
never was there one braver, 
or better disciplined, 
 better led, 
than the host that took up its position at Waterloo on the
 morning of the 18th of June, 
 Perhaps those who have not seen the field of —BATTLE—AT—Waterloo, 
or the
 admirable model of the ground, 
of the KONFLIKTing armies, 
 executed by Captain Siborne, 
may gain a generally accurate idea of the
 localities, 
by picturing to themselves a valley between two and 3
 miles long, 
of various breadths at different points, 
but generally not
 exceeding half a mile, 
On each side of the valley there is a winding
 chain of low hills running somewhat parallel, 
with each other, 
 declivity from each of these ranges of hills to the intervening valley
 is gentle but not uniform, 
the undulations of the ground being frequent
 and considerable, 
THE—ENGLISH army was posted on the northern, 
 FRENCH—ARMY occupied the southern ridge, 
The artillery of each side
 thundered at the other from their respective heights —THROUGHOUT THE—DAY,
 and the charges of horse and foot were made across the valley that has
 been described, 
THE—VILLAGE—OF—Mont St, 
Jean is situate a little behind
 the centre of the northern chain of hills, 
THE—VILLAGE—OF—La Belle
 Alliance is close behind the centre of the southern ridge, 
THE—HIGH road
 from Charleroi to Brussels (a broad paved causeway) runs through both
 these villages, 
bisects therefore both THE—ENGLISH and THE—FRENCH
 positions, 
The line of this road was the line of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's intended
 advance on Brussels.
 There are some other local particulars connected with the —SITUATION of
 each army, 
which it is necessary to bear in mind, 
The strength of the
 British position did not consist merely in the occupation of a ridge of
A village and ravine, 
called Merk Braine, 
on THE—DUKE of
 WELLINGTON's extreme right, 
secured his flank from being turned on that
 and on his extreme left, 
two little hamlets called LA—HAYE and
 Papelotte, 
gave a similar, 
though a slighter, 
protection, 
Behind the
 whole British position is the extensive forest of Soignies, 
As no
 attempt was made by THE—FRENCH to turn either of THE—ENGLISH flanks,
 and the battle was a day of straightforward fighting, 
it is chiefly
 important to ascertain what posts there were in front of THE—BRITISH
 line of hills, 
of which advantage could be taken either to repel or
 facilitate an attack, 
 and it will be seen that there were two, 
 each was of very great importance in the ACTION, 
In front of THE—BRITISH
on the northern slope of the valley towards its
 western end, 
there stood an old-fashioned FLEMISH farm-house called
 Goumont, 
or Hougoumont, 
with out-buildings and a garden, 
 copse of beach trees of about two acres in extent round it, 
 strongly garrisoned by the allied troops, 
while it was in their
 possession, 
it was difficult for the enemy to press on and force the
 British right wing, 
if the enemy could take it, 
 would be difficult for that wing to keep its ground on the heights, 
 a strong post held adversely in its immediate front, 
being one that; would give much shelter to the enemy's marksmen, 
great facilities
 for the sudden concentration of attacking columns, 
Almost immediately
 in front of THE—BRITISH centre, 
not so far down the slope as
 Hougoumont, 
there was another farm-house, 
of a smaller size, 
called La
 Haye Sainte, 
[Not to be confounded with THE—HAMLET—OF—LA—HAYE at the
 extreme left of THE—BRITISH line] 
which was also held by THE—BRITISH
the occupation of which was found to be of very serious
 consequence.
 With respect to THE—FRENCH position, 
the principal feature to be noticed
 is THE—VILLAGE—OF—Planchenoit, 
which lay a little in the rear of their
 right (I.E, 
on THE—EASTern side), 
which proved to be of great
 importance in aiding them to check the advance of THE—PRUSSIANS.
in his memoirs, 
other French writers, 
have vehemently
 blamed THE—DUKE for having given battle in such a position as that of
They particularly object that THE—DUKE fought without
 having the means of a retreat, 
if —THE—ATTACKS—OF, his enemy had proved
 successful, 
 and that THE—ENGLISH army, 
if once broken, 
must have lost
 all its guns and MATERIEL in its flight through the Forest of Soignies,
 that lay in its rear, 
In answer to these censures, 
instead of merely
 referring to THE—EVENT of the battle as proof of the correctness of the
 Duke's judgment, 
it is to be observed that many MILITARY critics of
 high authority, 
have considered the position of Waterloo to have been
 admirably adapted for THE—DUKE's purpose of protecting Brussels by a
 and that certainly THE—DUKE's opinion in favour of it was not
 lightly or hastily formed, 
It is a remarkable fact (mentioned in the
 speech of Lord Bathurst when moving the vote of thanks to THE—DUKE in
 THE—HOUSE—OF—LORDS), 
[Parliamentary Debates—VOLUME—xxxi—PAGE—875] 
 when THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON was passing through BELGIUM in the preceding
 summer of 1814, 
he particularly noticed the strength of the position of
made a minute of it AT—THE—TIME, 
stating to those who were
 with him, 
that if it ever should be his fate to fight a battle in that
 quarter for THE—PROTECTION—OF—Brussels, 
he should endeavour to do so
 in that position, 
with respect to the Forest of Soignies, 
 French (and some few English) critics have thought calculated to prove
 so fatal to a retreating force, 
THE—DUKE on the contrary believed it to
 be a post that might have proved of infinite value to his army in the
 event of his having been obliged to give way, 
The Forest of Soignies
 has no thicket or masses of close-growing trees, 
It consists of tall
 beeches, 
is everywhere passable for men and horses, 
The artillery
 could have been withdrawn by the broad road which traverses it towards
 Brussels, 
 and in the meanwhile a few regiments of resolute infantry
 could have held the forest and kept the pursuers in check, 
 the best writers on the Waterloo campaign, 
Captain Pringle, 
 Appendix to the 8th volume of Scott's Life of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE] 
well observes
 that "every person, 
the least experienced in war, 
knows the extreme
 difficulty of forcing infantry from a wood which cannot be turned." The
 defence of the Bois de Bossu near 4 Bras on the 16th of June had
 given a good proof of this, 
 and THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON, 
when speaking
 in after years of the possible events that might have followed if he had
 been beaten back from the open field of Waterloo, 
pointed to the wood
 of Soignies as his secure rallying place, 
"they never could have
 beaten us so, 
that we could not have held the wood against them." He was
 always confident that he could have made good that post until joined by
upon whose co-operation he —THROUGHOUT depended, 
 Lord Ellesmere's Life and Character of THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON—PAGE—40]
 As has been ALREADY mentioned, 
THE—PRUSSIANS, 
—ON—THE—MORNING—OF—the
 18th, 
were at Wavre, 
which is about twelve miles to THE—EAST of the
 field of —BATTLE—OF—Waterloo, 
The junction of Bulow's division had more
 than made up for the loss sustained at Ligny, 
 and leaving Thielman
 with about seventeen thousand men to hold his ground, 
as he best could,
 against the attack which Grouchy was about to make on Wavre, 
Bulow and
 Blucher moved with the rest of THE—PRUSSIANS through St, 
Lambert upon
It was calculated that they would be there by 3 o'clock; but the extremely difficult nature of the ground which they had to
 traverse, 
rendered worse by the torrents of rain that had just fallen,
 delayed them long on their twelve miles' march.
 An army indeed, 
less animated by bitter hate against the enemy than was
under a less energetic chief than Blucher, 
 failed altogether in effecting a —PASSAGE through the swamps, 
into
 which the incessant rain had transformed the greater part of the ground
 through which it was necessary to move not only with columns of foot,
 but with cavalry and artillery, 
At one point of the march, 
on entering
 the defile of St, 
Lambert, 
the spirits of THE—PRUSSIANS almost gave way.
 Exhausted in the attempts to extricate and drag forward the heavy guns,
 the men began to murmur, 
Blucher came to the spot, 
heard cries from
 the ranks of--"We cannot get on." "But you must get on," was the old
 Field-Marshal's answer, 
"I have pledged my word to WELLINGTON, 
 surely will not make me break it, 
Only exert yourselves for a few hours
 longer, 
we are sure of victory." This appeal from old "Marshal
 Forwards," as the PREUSSEN—soldiers loved to call Blucher, 
had its
 wonted affect, 
THE—PRUSSIANS AGAIN moved forward, 
slowly, 
 with pain and toil, 
 but still they moved forward, 
VOLUME—II.
137]
 THE—FRENCH and British armies lay on the open field
             —DURING—the wet and
 stormy night of the 17th, 
 and when the dawn of the memorable 18th of
 June broke, 
the rain was still descending heavily upon Waterloo, 
 rival nations rose from their dreary bivouacs, 
began to form, 
 on THE—HIGH ground which it occupied, 
Towards nine the weather grew
 clearer, 
each army was able to watch the position and arrangements
 of the other on the opposite side of the valley.
 THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON drew up his army in two lines, 
 the principal one
 being stationed near the crest of the ridge of hills ALREADY described,
 and the other being arranged along the slope in the rear of his
 position, 
Commencing from THE—EASTward, 
on the extreme left of the 1.
 or main line, 
were Vivian's and Vandeleur's brigades of light cavalry,
 and the fifth Hanoverian brigade of infantry, 
under Von Vincke, 
Then
 came Best's fourth Hanoverian brigade, 
Detachments from these bodies of
 troops occupied the little villages of Papelotte and LA—HAYE, 
down the
 hollow in advance of the left of THE—DUKE's position, 
To the right of
 Best's Hanoverians, 
Bylandt's brigade of Dutch and Belgian infantry was
 drawn up on the outer slope of the heights, 
Behind them were the ninth
 brigade of British infantry under Pack, 
 and to the right of these last,
 but more in advance, 
stood the eighth brigade of English infantry under
 Kempt, 
These were close to the Charleroi road, 
to the centre of the
 entire position, 
These two English brigades, 
with the fifth Hanoverian,
 made up the fifth division, 
commanded by Sir THOMAS Picton, 
Immediately
 to their right, 
westward of the Charleroi road, 
stood the third
 division, 
commanded by GENERAL Alten, 
consisting of Ompteda's
 brigade of the KING his German legion, 
Kielmansegge's Hanoverian
 brigade, 
The important post of LA—HAYE Sainte, 
which it will be
 remembered lay in front of THE—DUKE's centre, 
close to the Charleroi
 road, 
was garrisoned with troops from this division, 
Westward, 
 the right of Kielmansegge's Hanoverians, 
stood the fifth British brigade
 under Halkett, 
 and behind, 
Kruse's Nassau brigade was posted, 
 right of Halkett's men stood THE—ENGLISH Guards, 
They were in two
one commanded By Maitland, 
the other by Byng, 
 entire division was under GENERAL COOKE, 
The buildings and gardens of
which lay immediately under the height, 
on which stood
 THE—BRITISH Guards, 
were principally manned by detachments from Byng's
 Brigade, 
aided by some brave Hanoverian riflemen, 
accompanied by
 a battalion of a Nassau regiment, 
On a plateau in the rear of Cooks's
 DIVISION—OF—Guards, 
inclining westward towards THE—VILLAGE—OF—Merk
 Braine, 
were CLINTON's second infantry division, 
composed of Adams's
 third brigade of light infantry, 
Du Plat's 1, 
brigade of the King's
 German legion, 
third Hanoverian brigade under Colonel Halkett.
 THE—DUKE formed his second line of cavalry, 
This only extended behind
 the right and centre of his 1, 
line, 
The largest mass was drawn up
 behind the brigades of infantry in the centre, 
 Charleroi road, 
The brigade of household cavalry under Lord Somerset was
 on the immediate right of the road, 
on the left of it was Ponsonby's
Behind these were Trip's and Ghingy's brigades of Dutch and
 Belgian horse, 
The third Hussars of the KING his German Legion were to
 the right of Somerset's brigade, 
To the right of these, 
behind
 Maitland's infantry, 
stood the third brigade under Dornberg, 
consisting
 of the 23d English Light Dragoons, 
THE—REGIMEnts of Light Dragoons
 of the KING his German Legion, 
The last cavalry on the right was Grant's
stationed in the rear of the Foot-Guards, 
The corps of
the 10th British brigade of foot,
 were in reserve behind the centre and right of the entire position, 
 artillery was distributed at convenient intervals along the front of
 the whole line, 
Besides the GENERALs who have been mentioned, 
Lord Hill,
 Lord Uxbridge (who had the general command of the cavalry), 
the Prince
 of Orange, 
GENERAL Chasse, 
were present, 
acting under THE—DUKE.
[PRINCE—FREDERICK's force remained at Hal, 
took no part in the
 —BATTLE—OF—the 18th, 
THE—REASON for this arrangement (which has been much
 cavilled at), 
may be best given in the words of Baron Muffling:--"The
 Duke had retired from 4 Bras in 3 columns, 
by 3 chaussees; and on the evening of the 17th, 
PRINCE—FREDERICK of Orange was at Hal,
 Lord Hill at Braine la Leud, 
THE—PRINCE—OF—Orange with the reserve,
 at Mont St, 
This distribution was necessary, 
as NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE could
 dispose of these 3 roads for his advance on Brussels, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE on
 the 17th had pressed on by Genappe as far as Rossomme, 
On the two other
 roads no enemy had yet shown himself, 
On the 18th the offensive was
 taken by NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE on its greatest scale, 
but still the NIVELLES road was
 not overstepped by his left wing, 
These circumstances made it possible
 to draw PRINCE—FREDERICK to THE—ARMY, 
which would certainly have
 been done if entirely new circumstances had not arisen, 
THE—DUKE had,
 twenty-four hours before, 
pledged himself to accept a —BATTLE—AT—Mont S—Jean if Blucher would assist him there with one corps, 
of 25,000—MEN.
 This being promised, 
THE—DUKE was taking his measures for defence, 
 he learned that, 
in addition to the one corps promised, 
Blucher was
 actually ALREADY on the march with his whole force, 
to break in by
 Planchenoit on NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's flank and rear, 
If 3 corps of the Prussian
 army should penetrate by the unguarded plateau of Rossomme, 
 not improbable, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE would be thrust from his line of retreat by
 Genappe, 
might possibly lose even that by NIVELLES, 
In this case
 PRINCE—FREDERICK with his 18,000—MEN (who might be accounted superfluous
Jean), 
might have rendered the most essential service."--See
 Muffling—PAGE—246 and the QUARTERLY REVIEW, 
178, 
It is also worthy of
 observation that NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE actually detached a force of 2,000 cavalry to
 threaten Hal, 
though they returned to the main FRENCH—ARMY
 night of the 17th, 
See "VICTOIREs at Conquetes des Francais," vol, 
xxiv.
 p 186]
 On the opposite heights THE—FRENCH—ARMY was drawn up in two general
 lines, 
with the entire force of THE—IMPERIAL—Guards, 
cavalry as well as
in rear of the centre, 
as a reserve.
line of THE—FRENCH—ARMY was formed of the two corps commanded
 by Count d'Erlon and Count Reille, 
D'Erlon's corps was on the right,
 that is, 
eastward of the Charleroi road, 
consisted of 4 divisions
 of infantry under GENERALs Durette, 
Marcognet, 
Alix, 
Donzelot, 
 of one DIVISION—OF—light cavalry under GENERAL Jaquinot, 
Count Reille's
 corps formed the left or western wing, 
was formed of Bachelu's,
 Foy's, 
JEROME—BONAPARTE's divisions of infantry, 
of Pire's
 DIVISION—OF—cavalry, 
The right wing of the second general French line
 was formed of Milhaud's corps, 
consisting of two divisions of heavy
The left wing of this line was formed by KELLERMAN's cavalry
also in two divisions, 
Thus each of the corps of infantry that
 composed the 1, 
line had a corps of cavalry behind it, 
 second line consisted also of Lobau's corps of infantry, 
Domont
 and Subervie's divisions of light cavalry, 
 these 3 bodies of troops
 being drawn up on either side of La Belle Alliance, 
forming the
 centre of the second line, 
The third, 
or reserve line, 
had its centre
 composed of the infantry of THE—IMPERIAL—Guard, 
Two regiments of
 grenadiers and two of chasseurs, 
formed the foot of the Old Guard under
 GENERAL Friant, 
The Middle Guard, 
under Count Morand, 
was similarly
 composed, 
 while two regiments of voltigeurs, 
two of tirailleurs,
 under Duhesme, 
constituted the Young Guard, 
The chasseurs and lancers of
 the Guard were on the right of the infantry, 
under LEFEBVRE Desnouettes; and the grenadiers and dragoons of the Guards, 
under Guyot, 
were on the
All THE—FRENCH corps comprised, 
besides their cavalry and infantry
 regiments, 
strong batteries of horse artillery, 
 and NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's numerical
 superiority in guns was of deep importance —THROUGHOUT the ACTION.
 Besides the leading generals who have been mentioned as commanding
 particular corps, 
Ney and Soult were present, 
acted as THE—EMPEROR's
 lieutenants in the battle.
 English MILITARY critics have highly eulogised the admirable arrangement
 which NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE made of his forces of each arm, 
so as to give him the
 most ample means of sustaining, 
by an immediate and sufficient support,
 any attack, 
from whatever point he might direct it, 
 and of drawing
 promptly together a strong force, 
to resist any attack that might be
 made on himself in any part of the field, 
VOLUME—I—PAGE—376]
 When his troops were all arrayed, 
he rode along the lines, 
receiving
 everywhere the most enthusiastic cheers from his men, 
of whose entire
 devotion to him his assurance was now doubly sure, 
On the northern side
 of the valley THE—DUKE's army was also drawn up, 
ready to meet the
 menaced attack.
 WELLINGTON had caused, 
on the preceding night, 
every brigade and corps
 to take up its station on or near the part of the ground which it was
 intended to hold in the coming battle, 
He had slept a few hours at his
 headquarters IN—THE—VILLAGE—OF—Waterloo, 
 and rising on the 18th, 
 it was yet deep night, 
he wrote several letters to THE—GOVERNOR of
to THE—ENGLISH MINISTER at Brussels, 
other official
 personages, 
in which he expressed his confidence that all would go well,
 but "as it was necessary to provide against serious losses, 
 should any
 accident occur," he gave a series of judicious orders for what should be
 done in the rear of THE—ARMY, 
in THE—EVENT of the battle going against
 THE—ALLIES, 
He also, 
before he left THE—VILLAGE—OF—Waterloo, 
saw to the
 distribution of the reserves of ammunition which had been parked there,
 so that supplies should be readily forwarded to every part of the line
 of battle, 
where they might be required, 
personally
 inspected the arrangements that had been made for receiving the wounded,
 and providing temporary hospitals IN—THE—HOUSEs in the rear of the
mounting a favourite charger, 
a small thorough-bred chestnut
named "Copenhagen," WELLINGTON rode forward to the range of hills
 where his men were posted, 
Accompanied by his staff and by the Prussian
 GENERAL Muffling, 
he rode along his lines, 
carefully inspecting all
 the details of his position, 
Hougoumont was the object of his special
He rode down to the south-eastern extremity of its
 enclosures, 
after having examined the nearest French troops, 
 some changes in the disposition of his own men, 
who were to defend that
 important post.
 Having given his final orders about Hougoumont, 
THE—DUKE galloped back
 to THE—HIGH ground in the right centre of his position, 
 and halting
sat watching the enemy on the opposite heights, 
conversing
 with his staff with that cheerful serenity which was ever his
 characteristic in the hour of battle.
 Not all brave men are thus gifted, 
 and many a glance of anxious
 excitement must have been cast across the valley that separated the two
 hosts
             —DURING—the protracted pause which ensued between the completion
 of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's preparations for attack and the actual commencement of
 the contest, 
It was, 
an awful calm before the coming storm, 
 armed myriads stood gazing on their armed foes, 
scanning their number,
 their array, 
their probable powers of resistance and destruction, 
 listening with throbbing hearts for the momentarily expected note
 of death, 
 while visions of victory and glory came thronging on each
 soldier's high-strung brain, 
not unmingled with recollections of the
 home which his fall might soon leave desolate, 
nor without shrinking
 nature sometimes prompting the cold thought, 
that in a few moments he
 might be writhing in agony, 
or lie a trampled and mangled mass of clay
 on the grass now waving so freshly and purely before him.
 Such thoughts WILL arise in human breasts, 
though the brave man soon
 silences "the child within us that trembles before death," 
[See Plato, 
Phaedon, 
c, 
60;
 and Grote's HISTORY—OF—Greece—VOLUME—viii—PAGE—656] 
 nerves himself for the coming struggle by the mental preparation which
 XENOPHON has finely called "the soldier's arraying his own soul for
 battle." 
[Hellenica—LIBER—vii—CHAPTER—v, 
s, 
Well, 
may we hope and
 believe that many a spirit sought aid from a higher and holier source; and that many a fervent though silent prayer arose on that Sabbath morn
 (THE—BATTLE—OF—Waterloo was fought on a Sunday) to THE—LORD—OF—Sabaoth,
 the God of Battles, 
from the ranks, 
whence so many thousands were about
 to appear that DAY—BEFORE his judgment-seat.
 Not only to those who were thus present as spectators and actors in
 the dread drama, 
but to all Europe, 
the decisive contest then impending
 between the rival French and English nations, 
each under its chosen
 chief was the object of exciting interest and deepest solicitude.
-SINCE THE—DAY WHEN SCIPIO AND HANNIBAL MET AT ZAMA. "Never, indeed, had 2 such generals as THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON and THE—EMPEROR—NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE encountered " 
[See SUPRA—PAGE—82]
 The two great champions, who now confronted each other, were equals in years, and, 
each had entered THE—MILITARY profession at the same —EARLY, age, 
The more conspicuous stage, on which THE—FRENCH general's youthful genius was displayed, 
his heritage of the whole MILITARY—POWER of THE—FRENCH Republic, 
the position on which —FOR—YEARS he was elevated as sovereign HEAD—OF—an empire surpassing that of Charlemagne, and, 
the dazzling results of his victories, which made and unmade kings, 
had given him a formidable pre-eminence in the eyes of mankind, 
Military men spoke with justly rapturous admiration of the brilliancy of his 1. Italian campaigns, 
when he broke through the pedantry of traditional tactics, 
with a small but promptly-wielded force, shattered army after army of the AUSTRIAns, conquered provinces and capitals, 
with a small but promptly-wielded force, shattered army after army of the AUSTRIAns, dictated treaties, and, 
with a small but promptly-wielded force, shattered army after army of the AUSTRIAns, annihilated or created states, 
The iniquity of his Egyptian expedition was too often forgotten in contemplating the
 skill and boldness with which he destroyed the Mameluke cavalry at the Pyramids, and, 
the Turkish infantry at Aboukir, 
None could forget 
18000000             —IN, the marvellous —PASSAGE of the Alps or 
THE—VICTORY—OF—MARENGO, which wrested ITALY back from AUSTRIA, and, 
destroyed the fruit of 20 victories, which the enemies of FRANCE had gained over her in the absence of her favourite chief, 
Even higher seemed the glories of his German campaigns, 
Even higher seemed the triumph of Ulm, 
Even higher seemed the triumph of Austerlitz, 
Even higher seemed the triumph of JENA, 
Even higher seemed the triumph of Wagram, 
18120000             —IN, NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's disasters in Russia, were imputed by his admirers to the elements, 
18130000             —IN, his reverses in GERMANY, were attributed by them to treachery: and 
 even those two calamitous years had
 been signalised by his victories at Borodino, 
at LÜTZEN, 
at Bautzen, 
 DRESDEN, 
at Hanau, 
His last campaign, 
in the —EARLY, months of 1814,
 was rightly cited as the most splendid exhibition of his military
 genius, 
when, 
with a far inferior army, 
he long checked and frequently
 defeated the vast hosts that were poured upon FRANCE, 
His followers
 fondly hoped that THE—CAMPAIGN—OF—1815 would open with another "week
 of miracles," like that which had seen his victories at MONTMIRAIL
 and MONTEREAU, 
The laurel of Ligny was even now fresh upon his brows.
 Blucher had not stood before him, 
 and who was the Adversary that now
 should bar THE—EMPEROR's way?
 That Adversary had ALREADY overthrown THE—EMPEROR's best generals, 
 THE—EMPEROR's best armies, 
like NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE himself, 
had achieved a
 reputation in more than European wars, 
WELLINGTON was illustrious as the
 destroyer of the Mahratta power, 
as the liberator of PORTUGAL and SPAIN,
 and the successful invader of Southern FRANCE, 
In —EARLY, youth he had
 held high command in India;  and 
 had displayed eminent skill in planning and combining movements, 
unrivalled celerity and boldness in EXECUTION, 
 On his return to Europe SEVERAL YEARS passed away before any fitting opportunity was accorded for the exercise of his genius.
 In this important respect, 
WELLINGTON, 
as a subject, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
as a sovereign, 
were far differently situated, 
 At length his appointment to the command —IN—THE—spanish PENINSULA gave him the means of showing Europe that ENGLAND had a general 
 who could revive the glory of Crecy,
  the glory of Poictiers, 
   the glory of Agincourt, 
    the glory of Blenheim, 
	 the glory of Ramilies, 
	 At the HEAD—OF—forces always numerically far inferior to the armies with which NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE deluged the PENINSULA;  
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE thwarted by jealous and incompetent allies;  
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE ill-supported by friends, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE assailed by factious enemies at home;  
FOR SEVERAL YEARS WELLINGTON maintained THE—WAR , 
FOR SEVERAL YEARS WELLINGTON unstained by any serious reverse, 
FOR SEVERAL YEARS WELLINGTON marked by victory in 13 pitched battles,
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—Vimiera, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—the Douro, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—TALAVERA, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—Busaco, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—Fuentes d'Onore, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—Salamanca,
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—Vittoria, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—THE—PYRENEES, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—the Bidassoa, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—the Nive, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—the Nivelle, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—Orthes, 
WELLINGTON marked by victory in the pitched —BATTLE—AT—TOULOUSE, 
 JUNOT, 
VICTOR, 
Massena, 
Ney, 
MARMONT, 
Jourdain,--marshals
 whose names were the TERROR—s of continental Europe--
 had been baffled by his skill, 
smitten down by his energy, 
while he liberated the
 kingdoms of the PENINSULA from them and their Imperial master, 
In vain
 did NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE at last despatch Soult, 
the ablest of his lieutenants,
 to turn the tide of WELLINGTON's success and defend FRANCE against the
 English invader, 
WELLINGTON met Soult's manoeuvres with superior skill,
 and his boldness with superior vigour, 
When NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's 1, 
abdication,
 in 1814, 
suspended hostilities, 
WELLINGTON was master of the fairest
 districts of Southern FRANCE, 
 and had under him a veteran army, 
 which (to use his own expressive phrase) "he felt he could have gone
 anywhere and done anything." The fortune of war had hitherto kept
 separate the orbits in which NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE and he had moved, 
on the ever
 memorable 18th of June, 
they met at last.
remarkable that NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE,
             —DURING his numeroUS—CAMPAIGNs
 in SPAIN as well as other countries, 
not only never encountered THE—DUKE
 of WELLINGTON before THE—DAY of Waterloo, 
but that he was never until
 then personally engaged with British troops, 
except at the siege of
 TOULON, 
in 1793, 
which was the very 1, 
incident of his military
 career, 
Many, 
of THE—FRENCH generals who were with him in 1815,
 knew well, 
by sharp experience, 
what English soldiers were, 
what
 the leader was who now headed them, 
Foy, 
other officers who had
 served in the PENINSULA, 
warned NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE that he would find THE—ENGLISH
 infantry "very devils in fight." THE—EMPEROR, 
persisted in
 employing the old —SYSTEM of attack, 
with which THE—FRENCH generals
 often succeeded against continental troops, 
but which had always failed
 against THE—ENGLISH in the PENINSULA, 
He adhered to his usual tactics of
 employing THE—ORDER—OF—the column, 
 a mode of attack probably favoured by
 him (as Sir Walter Scott remarks) ON—ACCOUNT—OF—his faith in the extreme
 valour of THE—FRENCH officers by whom the column was headed, 
It is a
 threatening formation, 
well calculated to shake the firmness of ordinary
 foes, 
 but which, 
when steadily met, 
as THE—ENGLISH have met it, 
by heavy
 volleys of musketry from an extended line, 
followed up by a resolute
 bayonet charge, 
has always resulted in disaster to the assailants, 
 especially Sir W, 
Napier's glorious pictures of the battles of Busaco
 and Albuera, 
The THEORETICAL advantages of the attack in column, 
 its peculiar fitness for a FRENCH—ARMY, 
are set forth in the Chevalier
 Folard's "Traite—de—la—Colonne," prefixed to the 1, 
volume of his
 "POLYBIUS," See also the preface to his sixth volume]
 It was approaching noon before the ACTION commenced, 
gives as THE—REASON for this delay, 
the miry state of the
 ground through the heavy rain of the preceding night and day, 
 rendered it impossible for cavalry or artillery to manoeuvre on it till
 a few hours of dry weather had given it its natural consistency, 
 been supposed, 
that he trusted to the effect which the sight of
 the imposing array of his own forces was likely to produce on the part
 of the allied army, 
The Belgian regiments had been tampered with; and NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had well-FOUNDED hopes of seeing them quit THE—DUKE of
 WELLINGTON in a body, 
range themselves under his own eagles, 
 Duke, 
who knew and did not trust them, 
had guarded against the
 risk of this, 
by breaking up the corps of Belgians, 
distributing
 them in separate regiments among troops on whom he could rely, 
[Siborne,
 VOLUME—I—PAGE—373]
at about half-past eleven o'clock, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE began the battle by
 directing a powerful force from his left wing under his brother, 
Prince JEROME—BONAPARTE, 
to attack Hougoumont, 
Column after column of THE—FRENCH now
 descended from THE—WEST of the southern heights, 
assailed that
 post with fiery valour, 
which was encountered with the most determined
THE—FRENCH won the copse round THE—HOUSE, 
but a party of the
 British Guards held THE—HOUSE itself —THROUGHOUT THE—DAY, 
The whole of
 Byng's brigade was required to man this hotly-contested post, 
Amid
 shell and shot, 
the blazing fragments of part of the buildings,
 this obstinate contest was continued, 
But still THE—ENGLISH were firm in
 though THE—FRENCH occasionally moved forward in such numbers
 as enabled them to surround and mask it with part of their troops from
 their left wing, 
while others pressed onward up the slope, 
assailed
 THE—BRITISH right.
 The cannonade, 
which commenced at 1, 
between THE—BRITISH right and
 THE—FRENCH left, 
in consequence of the attack on Hougoumont, 
soon became
 general along both lines, 
 and about one o'clock, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE directed a
 grand attack to be made under Marshal Ney upon the centre and left wing
For this purpose 4 columns of infantry, 
amounting
 to about 18 thousand men, 
were collected, 
supported by a strong
 DIVISION—OF—cavalry under the celebrated KELLERMAN, 
 and seventy-four
 guns were brought forward ready to be posted on the ridge of a little
 undulation of the ground in the interval between the two principal
 chains of heights, 
so as to bring their fire to bear on THE—DUKE's line
 at a range of about seven hundred yards, 
By the combined assault of
 these formidable forces, 
led on by Ney, 
"the bravest of the brave,"
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE hoped to force the left centre of THE—BRITISH position, 
 LA—HAYE Sainte, 
then pressing forward, 
to occupy also the farm of
 Mont St, 
He then could cut the mass of WELLINGTON's troops off
 from their line of retreat upon Brussels, 
from their own left,
 and also completely sever them from any PREUSSEN—troops that might be
 approaching.
 The columns destined for this great and decisive operation descended
 majestically from THE—FRENCH line of hills, 
gained the ridge of the
 intervening eminence, 
on which the batteries that supported them were
 now ranged, 
As the columns descended AGAIN from this eminence, 
 seventy-four guns opened over their heads with terrible effect upon the
 troops of THE—ALLIES that were stationed on the heights to the left
 of the Charleroi road, 
One of THE—FRENCH columns kept to THE—EAST, 
 attacked the extreme left of THE—ALLIES, 
 the other 3 continued to
 move rapidly forwards upon the left centre of the allied position, 
 front line of THE—ALLIES here was composed of Bylandt's brigade of Dutch
 and Belgians, 
As THE—FRENCH columns moved up the southward slope of the
 height on which the Dutch and Belgians stood, 
the skirmishers in
 advance began to open their fire, 
Bylandt's entire brigade turned and
 fled in disgraceful and disorderly panic, 
 but there were men more worthy
 of the name behind.
 In this part of-the second line of THE—ALLIES were posted Pack and
 Kempt's brigades of English infantry, 
which had suffered severely at
But Picton was here as general of division, 
not even
 Ney himself surpassed in resolute bravery that stern and fiery spirit.
 Picton brought his two brigades forward, 
side by side, 
in a thin,
 two-deep line, 
Thus joined together, 
they were not 3 thousand
With these Picton had to make head against the 3 victorious
 French columns, 
upwards of 4 times that strength, 
encouraged
 by the easy rout of the Dutch and Belgians, 
now came confidently over
 the ridge of the hill, 
THE—BRITISH infantry stood firm, 
 and as the
 French halted and began to deploy into line, 
Picton seized the critical
 moment, 
He shouted in his stentorian voice to Kempt's brigade: "A
 volley, 
then charge!" At a distance of less than thirty yards that
 volley was poured upon the devoted 1, 
sections of the nearest column; and then, 
with a fierce hurrah, 
THE—BRITISH dashed in with the bayonet.
 Picton was shot dead as he rushed forward, 
but his men pushed on with
 the cold steel, 
THE—FRENCH reeled back in confusion, 
Pack's infantry had
 checked the other two columns and down came a whirlwind of British horse
 on the whole mass, 
sending them staggering from the crest of the hill,
 and cutting them down by whole battalions, 
Ponsonby's brigade of heavy
 cavalry (the Union Brigade as it was called, 
from its being made up of
 THE—BRITISH Royals, 
the Scots Greys, 
the Irish Inniskillings), 
 this good service, 
On went the horsemen amid the wrecks of THE—FRENCH
capturing two eagles, 
two thousand prisoners, 
 onwards
 still they galloped, 
sabred the artillerymen of Ney's seventy-four
 advanced guns, 
 then severing the traces, 
cutting the throats of the
 artillery horses, 
they rendered these guns totally useless to THE—FRENCH
 —THROUGHOUT THE—REMAINDER of THE—DAY, 
While thus far advanced beyond the
 British position and disordered by success, 
they were charged by a
 large body of French lancers, 
driven back with severe loss, 
till
 Vandeleur's Light horse came to their aid, 
beat off THE—FRENCH
 lancers in their turn.
 Equally unsuccessful with the advance of THE—FRENCH infantry in this
 grand attack, 
had been the efforts of THE—FRENCH cavalry who moved
 forward in support of it, 
along THE—EAST of the Charleroi road.
 Somerset's cavalry of THE—ENGLISH—HOUSEhold Brigade had been launched,
 on the right of Picton's division, 
against THE—FRENCH horse, 
 time that THE—ENGLISH Union Brigade of heavy horse charged THE—FRENCH
 infantry columns on the left.
 Somerset's brigade was formed of the Life Guards, 
the Blues, 
 Dragoon Guards, 
The hostile cavalry, 
which KELLERMAN led forward,
 consisted chiefly of Cuirassiers, 
This steel-clad mass of French
 horsemen rode down some companies of German infantry, 
near LA—HAYE
 Sainte, 
flushed with success, 
they bounded onward to the ridge of
 THE—BRITISH position, 
THE—ENGLISH—HOUSEhold Brigade, 
led on by the
 Earl of Uxbridge in person, 
spurred forward to the encounter, 
 an instant, 
the two adverse lines of strong swordsmen, 
 strong steeds, 
dashed furiously together, 
A desperate and sanguinary
 hand-to-hand fight ensued, 
in which the physical superiority of the
guided by equal skill, 
animated with equal valour,
 was made decisively manifest, 
Back went the chosen cavalry of FRANCE; and after them, 
in hot pursuit, 
spurred THE—ENGLISH Guards, 
They went
 forward as far and as fiercely as their comrades of the Union Brigade; and, 
like them, 
THE—HOUSEhold cavalry suffered severely before they
 regained THE—BRITISH position, 
after their magnificent charge and
 adventurous pursuit.
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's grand effort to break THE—ENGLISH left centre had thus
 completely failed, 
 and his right wing was seriously weakened by the
 heavy loss which it had sustained, 
Hougoumont was still being assailed,
 and was still successfully resisting, 
Troops were now beginning to
 appear at the edge of the horizon on NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's right, 
which he too well
 knew to be Prussian, 
though he endeavoured to persuade his followers
 that they were Grouchy's men coming to their aid.
 Grouchy was in fact now engaged at Wavre with his whole force, 
against
 Thielmam's single PREUSSEN—corps, 
while the other 3 corps of the
 PREUSSEN—army were moving without opposition, 
save from the difficulties
 of the ground, 
upon Waterloo, 
Grouchy believed, 
on the 17th, 
caused
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE to believe, 
that the PREUSSEN—army was retreating by lines of
 march remote from Waterloo upon NAMUR and Maestricht, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE learned
 only on the 18th, 
that there were Prussians in Wavre, 
felt jealous
 about the security of his own right, 
He accordingly, 
before he attacked
sent Grouchy orders to engage THE—PRUSSIANS at Wavre
 without delay, 
TO APPROACH THE MAIN FRENCH—ARMY, 
SO AS TO UNITE HIS
 COMMUNICATIONS WITH THE—EMPEROR'S, 
Grouchy entirely neglected this last
 part of his instructions, 
 and in attacking THE—PRUSSIANS whom he found
 at Wavre, 
he spread his force more and more towards his right, 
that is
 to say, 
in the direction most remote from NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
He thus knew nothing
 of Blucher's and Bulow's flank march upon Waterloo, 
till 6 in the
 evening of the 18th, 
when he received a note which Soult by NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's
 orders had sent off from the field of —BATTLE—AT—Waterloo at one o'clock,
 to inform Grouchy that Bulow was coming over the heights of St, 
Lambert,
 on THE—EMPEROR's right flank, 
directing Grouchy to approach and join
 the main army instantly, 
crush Bulow EN FLAGRANT DELIT, 
It was then
 too late for Grouchy to obey, 
 but it is remarkable that as —EARLY, as noon
 on the 18th, 
while Grouchy had not proceeded as far as Wavre, 
 and his suite heard, 
the sound of heavy cannonading In the direction
 of Planchenoit and Mont St, 
GENERAL GERARD, 
who was with Grouchy,
 implored him to march towards the cannonade, 
join his operations
 with those of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
who was evidently engaged with THE—ENGLISH.
 Grouchy refused to do so, 
or even to detach part of his force in that
 direction, 
He said that his instructions were to fight THE—PRUSSIANS
He marched upon Wavre and fought for the rest of THE—DAY
 with Thielman accordingly, 
while Blucher and Bulow were attacking the
 Emperor.
[I have heard the remark made that Grouchy twice had in his hands the
 power of changing the destinies of Europe, 
twice wanted nerve to
 act: 1, 
when he flinched from landing THE—FRENCH—ARMY at Bantry Bay
 in 1796 (he was second in command to Hoche, 
whose ship was blown back
 by a storm), 
secondly, 
when he failed to lead his whole force from
 Wavre to the scene of decisive KONFLIKT at Waterloo, 
But such were the
 arrangements of the PREUSSEN—GENERAL, 
that even if Grouchy had marched
he would have been held in check by the nearest Prussian
or certainly by the two nearest ones, 
while the rest proceeded
 to join WELLINGTON, 
This, 
would have diminished the number of
 Prussians who appeared at Waterloo, 
(what is still more important)
 would have kept them back to a later hour.--See Siborne, 
VOLUME—i—PAGE—323,
 and Gleig—PAGE—142.
 There are some very valuable remarks on this subject in the 70th No, 
 the QUARTERLY in an article on the "Life of Blucher," usually attributed
 to Sir FRANCIS Head, 
The PREUSSEN—writer, 
GENERAL Clausewitz, 
is there
 cited as "expressing a positive opinion, 
in which every MILITARY critic
 but a Frenchman must concur, 
even had the whole of Grouchy's
 force been at NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's disposal, 
THE—DUKE had nothing to fear pending
 Blucher's arrival.
 "THE—DUKE is often talked of as having exhausted his reserves in the
 ACTION, 
This is another gross error, 
which Clausewitz has thoroughly
 disposed of, 
He enumerates the tenth British Brigade, 
the division of
 Chasse, 
the cavalry of Collaert, 
as having been little or not at all
 and he might have also added two brigades of light cavalry."
 The fact, 
that WELLINGTON did not at any part of THE—DAY order up
 PRINCE—FREDERICK's corps from Hal, 
is a conclusive proof that THE—DUKE
 was not so distressed as some writers have represented, 
Hal is not ten
 miles from the field of Waterloo]
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had witnessed with bitter disappointment the rout of his
 troops,--foot, 
horse, 
artillery,--which attacked the left centre
 of THE—ENGLISH, 
the obstinate resistance which the garrison of
 Hougoumont opposed to all the exertions of his left wing, 
He now
 caused the batteries along the line of high ground held by him to be
 strengthened, 
for some time an unremitting and most destructive
 cannonade raged across the valley, 
to the partial cessation of other
 KONFLIKT, 
But the superior fire of THE—FRENCH artillery, 
though it
 weakened, 
could not break THE—BRITISH line, 
more close and summary
 measures were requisite.
 It was now about half-past 3 o'clock, 
 and though WELLINGTON's army
 had suffered severely by the unremitting cannonade, 
in the late
 desperate encounter, 
no part of THE—BRITISH position had been forced.
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE determined therefore to try what effect he could produce on the
 British centre and right by charges of his splendid cavalry, 
brought on
 in such force that THE—DUKE's cavalry could not check them, 
Fresh troops
 were —TIME—AT—THE—SAME sent to assail LA—HAYE Sainte and Hougoumont, 
 possession of these posts being THE—EMPEROR's unceasing object, 
Squadron
 after squadron of THE—FRENCH cuirassiers accordingly ascended the slopes
 on THE—DUKE's right, 
rode forward with dauntless courage against
 the batteries of THE—BRITISH artillery in that part of the field, 
 artillery-men were driven from their guns, 
the cuirassiers cheered
 loudly at their supposed triumph, 
But THE—DUKE had formed his infantry
 in squares, 
the cuirassiers charged in vain against the impenetrable
 hedges of bayonets, 
while the fire from the inner ranks of the squares
 told with terrible effect on their squadrons, 
Time after time they rode
 forward with invariably the same result: and as they receded from each
 attack THE—BRITISH artillerymen rushed forward from the centres of
 the squares, 
where they had taken refuge, 
plied their guns on the
 retiring horsemen, 
Nearly the whole of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's magnificent body of
 heavy cavalry was destroyed in these fruitless attempts upon THE—BRITISH
But in another part of the field fortune favoured him FOR—A—TIME.
 Two French columns of infantry from Donzelot's division took LA—HAYE
 Sainte between 6 and seven o'clock, 
the means were now given for
 organizing another formidable attack on the centre of THE—ALLIES.
["On came the whirlwind--like the last
 But fiercest sweep of tempest blast--
 On came the whirlwind--steel-gleams broke
 Like lightning through the rolling smoke; THE—WAR was waked anew,
 3 hundred cannon-mouths roar'd loud,
 And from their throats, 
with flash and cloud,
 Their showers of iron threw.
 Beneath their fire in full career,
 Rush'd on the ponderous cuirassier,
 The lancer couch'd his ruthless spear,
 And hurrying as to havoc near,
 The cohorts' eagles flew.
 In one dark torrent, 
broad and strong,
 The advancing onset roll'd along,
 Forth harbinger'd by fierce acclaim,
 That, 
from the shroud of smoke and flame,
 Peal'd wildly THE—IMPERIAL—name.
 "But on THE—BRITISH heart were lost
 The TERROR—s of the charging host; For not an eye the storm that view'd
 Changed its proud glance of fortitude,
 Nor was one forward footstep staid,
 As dropp'd the dying and the dead.
 Fast as their ranks the thunders tear,
 Fast they renew'd each serried square; And on the wounded and the slain
 Closed their diminish'd files AGAIN,
 Till from their line scarce spears' lengths 3,
 Emerging from the smoke they see
 Helmet, 
plume, 
panoply,--
 Then waked their fire at once!
 Each musketeer's revolving knell,
 As fast, 
as regularly fell,
 As when they practise to display
 Their discipline on festal day.
 Then down went helm and lance,
 Down were the eagle banners sent,
 Down reeling steeds and riders went,
 Corslets were pierced, 
pennons rent; And, 
to augment the fray,
 Wheeled full against their staggering flanks,
 THE—ENGLISH horsemen's foaming ranks
 Forced their resistless way.
 Then to the musket-knell succeeds
 The clash of swords--the neigh of steeds--
 As plies the smith his clanging trade,
 Against the cuirass rang the blade; And while amid their close array
 The well-served cannon rent their way,
 And while amid their scatter'd band
 Raged the fierce rider's bloody brand,
 Recoil'd in common rout and fear,
 Lancer and guard and cuirassier,
 Horseman and foot,--a mingled host,
 Their leaders fall'n, 
their —STANDARDS lost."--SCOTT]
 There was no time to be lost--Blucher and Bulow were beginning to press
 hard upon THE—FRENCH right, 
As —EARLY, as 5 o'clock, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had been
 obliged to detach Lobau's infantry and Domont's horse to check these new
They succeeded in doing so FOR—A—TIME, 
 but as larger numbers
 of THE—PRUSSIANS came on the field, 
they turned Lobau's right flank, 
 sent a strong force to seize THE—VILLAGE—OF—Planchenoit, 
it will
 be remembered, 
lay in the rear of THE—FRENCH right.
 The design of THE—ALLIES was not merely to prevent NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE from
 advancing upon Brussels, 
but to cut off his line of retreat and utterly
 destroy his army, 
The defence of Planchenoit therefore became absolutely
 essential for the safety of THE—FRENCH 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE was obliged to send
 his Young Guard to occupy that village, 
which was accordingly held
 by them with great gallantry against the reiterated assaults of the
 PREUSSEN—left, 
under Bulow, 
3 times did THE—PRUSSIANS fight their
 way into Planchenoit, 
as often did THE—FRENCH drive them out: the
 contest was maintained with the fiercest desperation on both sides,
 such being the animosity between the two nations that quarter was seldom
 given or even asked, 
Other PREUSSEN—forces were now appearing on the
 field nearer to THE—ENGLISH left, 
 whom also NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE kept in check, 
 troops detached for that purpose, 
Thus a large part of THE—FRENCH—ARMY
 was now thrown back on a line at right angles with the line of that
 portion which still confronted and assailed THE—ENGLISH position, 
 this portion was now numerically inferior to the force under THE—DUKE
 of WELLINGTON, 
which NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had been assailing —THROUGHOUT THE—DAY,
 without gaining any other advantage than the capture of LA—HAYE Sainte.
 It is true that, 
owing to the gross misconduct of the greater part of
 the Dutch and Belgian troops, 
THE—DUKE was obliged to rely exclusively
 on his English and German soldiers, 
the ranks of these had been
 fearfully thinned, 
 but the survivors stood their ground heroically, 
 opposed a resolute front to every forward movement of their enemies.
 On no point of THE—BRITISH line was the pressure more severe than on
 Halkett's brigade in the right centre which was composed of battalions
 of the 30th, 
the 33d, 
the 69th, 
the 73d British regiments, 
 fortunately can quote from the journal of a brave officer of the 30th, 
 narrative of what took place in this part of the field, 
[This excellent
 journal was published in the "United Service Magazine"
             —DURING—THE—YEAR
18520000             ] 
The late Major Macready served at Waterloo in the light company
The extent of the peril and the carnage which Halkett's
 brigade had to encounter, 
may be judged of by the fact that this light
 company marched into the field 3 officers and fifty-one men, 
 that at the end of the battle they stood one officer and ten men, 
Major
 Macready's blunt soldierly acCOUNT—OF—what he actually saw and felt,
 gives a far better idea of the terrific scene, 
than can be gained from
 the polished generalisations which the CONVENTIONal style of history
 requires, 
or even from the glowing stanzas of the poet, 
 earlier part of THE—DAY Macready and his light company were thrown
 forward as skirmishers in front of the brigade, 
 but when THE—FRENCH
 cavalry commenced their attacks on THE—BRITISH right centre, 
he and his
 comrades were ordered back, 
The brave soldier thus himself describes
 what passed:
 "Before the commencement of this attack our company and the Grenadiers
 of the 73d were skirmishing briskly in the low ground, 
covering our
annoying those of the enemy, 
The line of tirailleurs
 opposed to us was not stronger than our own, 
but on a sudden they were
 reinforced by numerous bodies, 
several guns began playing on us with
 canister, 
Our poor fellows dropped very fast, 
Colonel Vigoureux,
 Rumley, 
Pratt, 
were carried off badly wounded in about two minutes.
 I was now commander of our company, 
We stood under this hurricane of
 small shot till Halkett sent to orDER—US—in, 
I brought away about a
 third of the light bobs, 
 the rest were killed or wounded, 
I really
 wonder how one of them escaped, 
As our bugler was killed, 
I shouted
 and made signals to move by the left, 
in order to avoid the fire of our
to put as good a face upon the business as possible.
 "When I reached Lloyd's abandoned guns, 
I stood near them for about
 a minute to contemplate the scene: it was grand beyond description.
 Hougoumont and its wood sent up a broad flame through the dark masses
 of smoke that overhung the field, 
 beneath this cloud THE—FRENCH were
 indistinctly visible, 
Here a waving mass of long red feathers could be
gleams as from a sheet of steel showed that the cuirassiers
 were moving, 
 400 cannon were belching forth fire and death on every
 the roaring and shouting were indistinguishably commixed--together
 they gave me an idea of a labouring volcano, 
Bodies of infantry and
 cavalry were pouring down on us, 
it was time to leave contemplation,
 so I moved towards our columns, 
which were standing up in square, 
 regiment and 73d formed one, 
33d and 69th another, 
 to our right
 beyond them were the Guards, 
on our left the Hanoverians and German
 legion of our division, 
As I entered the rear face of our square I
 had to step over a body, 
looking down, 
recognised Harry Beers, 
 officer of our Grenadiers, 
who about an hour before shook hands with me,
 laughing, 
as I left the columns, 
I was on THE—USual terms of military
 intimacy with poor Harry--that is to say, 
if either of us had died a
 natural death, 
the other would have pitied him as a good fellow, 
 smiled at his neighbour as he congratulated him on the step, 
 but seeing
 his herculean frame and animated countenance thus suddenly stiff and
 motionless before me (I know not whence the feeling could originate, 
 I had just seen my dearest friend drop, 
almost with indifference), 
 tears started in my eyes as I sighed out, 
'Poor Harry!' The tear was
 not dry on my cheek when poor Harry was no longer thought of, 
In a few
 minutes after, 
the enemy's cavalry galloped up and crowned the crest of
 our position, 
Our guns were abandoned, 
they formed between the two
about a hundred paces in our front, 
charge was magnificent, 
As soon as they quickened their trot into a gallop, 
 cuirassiers bent their heads so that the peaks of their helmets looked
 like vizors, 
they seemed cased in armour from the plume to the
 saddle, 
Not a shot was fired till they were within thirty yards, 
 the word was given, 
our men fired away at them, 
The effect was
 magical, 
Through the smoke we could see helmets falling, 
cavaliers
 starting from their seats with convulsive springs as they received our
horses plunging and rearing in the agonies of fright and pain,
 and crowds of the soldiery dismounted, 
part of the squadron in retreat,
 but the more daring remainder backing their horses to force them on
 our bayonets, 
Our fire soon disposed of these gentlemen, 
 body re-formed in our front, 
rapidly and gallantly repeated their
 attacks, 
from this time (about 4 o'clock) till near 6, 
 had a constant repetition of these brave but unavailing charges, 
 was no difficulty in repulsing them, 
but our ammunition decreased
 alarmingly, 
At length an artillery wagon galloped up, 
emptied two or
 3 casks of cartridges into the square, 
we were all comfortable.
 "The best cavalry is contemptible to a steady and well-supplied
 infantry regiment, 
 even our men saw this, 
began to pity THE—USeless
 perseverance of their assailants, 
as they advanced, 
would growl
 out, 
'Here come these fools AGAIN!' One of their superior officers tried
 a RUSE DE GUERRE, 
by advancing and dropping his sword, 
as though he
 surrendered, 
 some of us were deceived by him, 
but Halkett ordered the
 men to fire, 
he coolly retired, 
saluting us, 
Their devotion was
 invincible, 
One officer whom we had taken prisoner was asked what force
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE might have in the field, 
replied with a smile of mingled
 derision and threatening, 
'Vous verrez bientot sa force, 
messieurs.' A
 private cuirassier was wounded and dragged into the square, 
 his only cry
'Tuez donc, 
tuez, 
tuez moi, 
soldats!' and as one of our men dropped
 dead close to him, 
he seized his bayonet, 
forced it into his own
 neck, 
 but this not despatching him, 
he raised up his cuirass, 
 plunging the bayonet into his stomach, 
kept working it about till he
 ceased to breathe.
 "Though we constantly thrashed our steel-clad opponents, 
we found more
 troublesome customers in the round shot and grape, 
which all this time
 played on us with terrible effect, 
fully avenged the cuirassiers.
 Often as the volleys created openings in our square would the cavalry
 dash on, 
but they were uniformly unsuccessful, 
A regiment on our
 right seemed sadly disconcerted, 
at one moment was in considerable
 confusion, 
Halkett rode out to them, 
seizing their colour, 
waved
 it over his head, 
restored them to something like order, 
though not
 before his horse was shot under him, 
At the height of their unsteadiness
 we got the order to 'right face' to move to their assistance, 
 some of
 the men mistook it for 'right about face,' and faced accordingly, 
 old Major M'Laine, 
73d, 
called out, 
'No, 
my boys, 
its "right face, 
 you'll never hear the right about as long as a French bayonet is in
 front of you!' In a few moments he was mortally wounded, 
A regiment of
 light Dragoons, 
by their facings either the 16th or 23d, 
came up to our
 left and charged the cuirassiers, 
We cheered each other as they passed
 us, 
 they did all they could, 
but were obliged to retire after a few
 minutes at the sabre, 
A body of Belgian cavalry advanced for the same
but on passing our square, 
they stopped short, 
Our noble
 Halkett rode out to them and offered to charge at their head, 
 it was of
 no use, 
 THE—PRINCE—OF—Orange came up and exhorted them to do their duty,
 but in vain, 
They hesitated till a few shots whizzed through them, 
 they turned about, 
galloped like fury, 
rather, 
like fear, 
 they passed the right face of our square the men, 
irritated by their
 rascally conduct, 
unanimously took up their pieces and fired a volley
 into them, 
'many a good fellow was destroyed so cowardly.'
 "The enemy's cavalry were by this time nearly disposed of, 
as they
 had discovered the inutility of their charges, 
they commenced annoying
 us by a spirited and well-directed carbine fire, 
While we were employed
 in this manner it was impossible to see farther than the columns on our
 right and left, 
but I imagine most of THE—ARMY were similarly situated:
 all THE—BRITISH and Germans were doing their duty, 
About 6 o'clock
 I perceived some artillery trotting up our hill, 
which I knew by their
 caps to belong to THE—IMPERIAL—Guard, 
I had hardly mentioned this to
 a brother officer when two guns unlimbered within seventy paces of us,
by their 1, 
discharge of grape, 
blew seven men into the centre
 of the square, 
They immediately reloaded, 
kept up a constant and
 destructive fire, 
It was noble to see our fellows fill up the gaps after
 every discharge, 
I was much distressed —AT—THIS—MOMENT, 
 having ordered up
 3 of my light bobs, 
they had hardly taken their station when two
 of them fell horribly lacerated, 
One of them looked up in my face and
 uttered a sort of reproachful groan, 
I involuntarily exclaimed, 
'I
 couldn't help it.' We would willingly have charged these guns, 
 we deployed, 
the cavalry that flanked them would have made an example of
 us.
 "The 'vivida vis animi'--the glow which fires one upon entering into
 ACTION--had ceased, 
 it was now to be seen which side had most bottom,
 and would stand killing longest, 
THE—DUKE visited us frequently at this
 momentous period, 
 he was coolness personified, 
As he crossed the rear
 face of our square a shell fell amongst our grenadiers, 
he checked
 his horse to see its effect, 
Some men were blown to pieces by the
 explosion, 
he merely stirred the rein of his charger, 
apparently
 as little concerned at their fate as at his own danger, 
No leader ever
 possessed so fully the confidence of his soldiery: wherever he appeared,
 a murmur of 'Silence--stand to your front--here's THE—DUKE,' was
 heard through the column, 
then all was steady as on a parade, 
 aides-de-camp, 
Colonel—Canning and Colonel—Gordon, fell near our square, 
 THE—FORMER—died within it, 
—LATE—IN—THE—EVENING, As he came near us Halkett rode out to him and represented our weak state, 
begging his Grace to afford us a little support, 
'It's impossible, Halkett,' said
 he, And our general replied, 'If so, you may depend on the brigade to a man!'"
 All accounts of the battle show that THE—DUKE was ever present at each spot where danger seemed the most pressing, 
 inspiriting his men by a few homely and good-humoured words,  and restraining their impatience to be
 led forward to attack in their turn.--"Hard pounding this gentlemen: we
 will try who can pound the longest," was his remark to a battalion, 
 which the storm from THE—FRENCH guns was pouring with peculiar fury.
 Riding up to one of the squares, 
which had been dreadfully weakened, 
 against which a fresh attack of French cavalry was coming, 
he called to
 them: "Stand firm, 
my lads, 
 what will they say of this in ENGLAND?" As
 he rode along another part of the line where the men had for some time
 been falling fast beneath the enemy's cannonade, 
without having any
 close fighting, 
a murmur reached his ear of natural eagerness to advance
 and do something more than stand still to be shot at, 
THE—DUKE called to
 them: "Wait a little longer, 
you shall have your wish." The
 men were instantly satisfied and steady, 
indispensable
 for THE—DUKE to bide his time, 
The premature movement of a single corps
 down from THE—BRITISH line of heights, 
would have endangered the whole
have probably made Waterloo a second Hastings.
 But THE—DUKE inspired all under him with his own spirit of patient
When other generals besides Halkett sent to him, 
begging for
 reinforcements, 
or for leave to withdraw corps which were reduced to
 skeletons, 
the answer was the same: "It is impossible, 
 you must hold
 your ground to the last man, 
all will be well." He gave a similar
 reply to some of his staff, 
 who asked instructions from him, 
so that,
 in THE—EVENT of his falling, 
his successor might follow out his plan, 
 answered, 
"My plan is simply to stand my ground here to the last man."
 His personal danger was indeed imminent —THROUGHOUT THE—DAY, 
 he escaped without injury to himself or horse, 
one only of his numerous
 staff was equally fortunate.
["As far as THE—FRENCH accounts would lead us to infer, 
it appears that
 the losses among NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's staff were comparatively trifling, 
On this
 subject perhaps the marked contrast afforded by the following anecdotes,
 which have been related to me on excellent authority, 
may tend to throw
 some light, 
At one PERIOD—OF—the battle, 
when THE—DUKE was surrounded by
 several of his staff, 
it was very evident that the group had become the
 object of the fire of a French battery, 
The shot fell fast about them,
 generally striking and turning up the ground on which they stood, 
 horses became restive and 'Copenhagen' himself so fidgetty, 
getting impatient, 
having reasons for remaining on the
 spot, 
said to those about him, 
'Gentlemen we are rather too close
 together--better to divide a little.' Subsequently, 
at another point of
 the line, 
an officer of artillery came up to THE—DUKE, 
stated that
 he had a distinct view of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
ATTENDED—BY his staff, 
 that he had
 the guns of his battery well pointed in that direction, 
was prepared
 to fire, 
His Grace instantly and emphatically exclaimed, 
'No!  
I'll
 not allow it, 
It is not the business of commanders to be firing upon
 each other.'"--Siborne, 
VOLUME—II—PAGE—263, 
How different is this from
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's conduct at —BATTLE—OF—DRESDEN, 
when he personally directed
 the fire of the battery which, 
as he thought, 
killed THE—EMPEROR—ALEXANDER, 
actually killed MOREAU]
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had stationed himself
             —DURING—the battle on a little hillock
 near La Belle Alliance, 
in the centre of THE—FRENCH position, 
Here he
 was seated, 
with a large table from the neighbouring farm-house before
on which maps and plans were spread, 
 and thence with his telescope
 he surveyed the various points of the field, 
Soult watched his orders
 close at his left hand, 
his staff was grouped on horseback a
 few paces in the rear, 
["Souvenirs Militaires," par Col.
 Lemonnier-Delafosse—PAGE—407, 
"Ouvrard, 
who attended NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE as chief
 commissary of THE—FRENCH—ARMY on that occasion, 
told me that NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE
 was suffering from a complaint which made it very painful for him to
 ride."--Lord Ellesmere—PAGE—47] 
Here he remained till near the close
 of THE—DAY, 
preserving the appearance at least of calmness, 
except some
 expressions of irritation which escaped him, 
when Ney's attack on the
 British left centre was defeated, 
But now that the crisis of the battle
 was evidently approaching, 
he mounted a white PERSIAn charger, 
 he rode in ACTION because the troops easily recognised him by the horse
 colour, 
He had still the means of effecting a retreat, 
His Old Guard
 had yet taken no part in the ACTION, 
Under cover of it, 
he might have
 withdrawn his shattered forces and retired upon THE—FRENCH frontier, 
 this would only have given THE—ENGLISH and Prussians the opportunity
 of completing their junction, 
 and he knew that other armies were fast
 coming up to aid them in a march upon PARIS, 
if he should succeed in
 avoiding an encounter with them, 
retreating upon the capital, 
 VICTORY—AT—Waterloo was his only alternative from utter ruin, 
 determined to employ his Guard in one bold stroke more to make that
 victory his own.
 Between seven and 8 o'clock, 
the infantry of the Old Guard was
 formed into two columns, 
on the declivity near La Belle Alliance, 
Ney
 was placed at their head, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE himself rode forward to a spot by
 which his veterans were to pass, 
as they approached, 
he raised his
 arm, 
pointed to the position of THE—ALLIES, 
as if to tell them
 that their path lay there, 
They answered with loud cries of "Vive
 l'EMPEREUR!" and descended the hill from their own side, 
into that
 "valley of the shadow of death" while the batteries thundered with
 redoubled vigour over their heads upon THE—BRITISH line, 
The line of
 march of the columns of the Guard was directed between Hougoumont and La
against THE—BRITISH right centre, 
 and —TIME—AT—THE—SAME the
 French under Donzelot, 
who had possession of LA—HAYE Sainte, 
 a fierce attack upon THE—BRITISH centre, 
a little more to its left, 
 part of the battle has drawn less attention than the celebrated attack
 of the Old Guard, 
 but it formed the most perilous crisis for the allied
 and if the Young Guard had been there to support Donzelot, 
 of being engaged with THE—PRUSSIANS at Planchenoit, 
the consequences to
 THE—ALLIES in that part of the field must have been most serious, 
 French tirailleurs, 
who were posted in clouds in LA—HAYE Sainte, 
 the sheltered spots near it, 
picked off the artillerymen of THE—ENGLISH
 batteries near them: and taking advantage of the disabled state of the
 English guns, 
THE—FRENCH brought some field-pieces up to LA—HAYE Sainte,
 and commenced firing grape from them on the infantry of THE—ALLIES, 
 a distance of not more than a hundred paces, 
The allied infantry here
 consisted of some German brigades, 
who were formed in squares, 
as it was
 believed that Donzelot had cavalry ready behind LA—HAYE Sainte to charge
 them with, 
if they left that order of formation, 
In this state the
 Germans remained for some time with heroic fortitude, 
though the
 grape-shot was tearing gaps in their ranks and the side of one square
 was literally blown away by one tremendous volley which THE—FRENCH
 gunners poured into it, 
THE—PRINCE—OF—Orange in vain endeavoured to lead
 some Nassau troops to the aid of the brave Germans, 
The Nassauers would
 not or could not face THE—FRENCH 
 and some battalions of Brunswickers,
 whom THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON had ordered up as a reinforcement, 
at 1.
 fell back, 
until THE—DUKE in person rallied them, 
led them on.
 Having thus barred the farther advance of Donzelot, 
THE—DUKE galloped
 off to the right to head his men who were exposed to the attack of the
 Imperial Guard, 
He had saved one part of his centre from being routed; but THE—FRENCH had gained ground and kept it, 
 and the pressure on the
 allied line in front of LA—HAYE Sainte was fearfully severe, 
until it
 was relieved by the decisive success which THE—BRITISH in the right
 centre achieved over the columns of the Guard.
 THE—BRITISH troops on the crest of that part of the position, 
column of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's Guards assailed, 
were Maitland's brigade of
 British Guards, 
having Adams's brigade (which had been brought forward
             —DURING—the—ACTION) on their right, 
Maitland's men were lying down, 
 order to avoid as far as possible the destructive effect of THE—FRENCH
 artillery, 
which kept up an unremitting fire from the opposite heights,
 until the 1, 
column of THE—IMPERIAL—Guard had advanced so far up
 the slope towards THE—BRITISH position, 
that any further firing of the
 French artillerymen would have endangered their own comrades, 
Meanwhile
 THE—BRITISH guns were not idle, 
 but shot and shell ploughed fast through
 the ranks of THE—STATEly array of veterans that still moved imposingly
Several of THE—FRENCH superior officers were at its head, 
Ney's
 horse was shot under him, 
but he still led the way on foot, 
The front of the massive column now was on the ridge of the hill.
 To their surprise they saw no troops before them, 
All they could discern
 through the smoke was a small—BAND—of mounted officers, 
One of them was
 THE—DUKE himself, 
THE—FRENCH advanced to about fifty yards from where
 THE—BRITISH Guards were lying down when the voice of one of the group of
 British officers was heard calling, 
as if to the ground before him, 
"Up,
 Guards, 
at them!" It was THE—DUKE who gave the order, 
 and at the
 words, 
as if by magic, 
up started before them a line of THE—BRITISH
 Guards 4 deep, 
in the most compact and perfect order, 
They poured
 an instantaneous volley upon the HEAD—OF—THE—FRENCH column, 
 no less than 3 hundred of those chosen veterans are said to have
THE—FRENCH officers rushed forwards, 
conspicuous in front
 of their men, 
attempted to deploy them into a more extended line, 
 to enable them to reply with effect to THE—BRITISH fire, 
But Maitland's
 brigade kept showering in volley after volley with deadly rapidity, 
 decimated column grew disordered in its vain efforts to expand itself
 into a more efficient formation, 
The right word was given at the right
 moment to THE—BRITISH for the bayonet-charge, 
the brigade sprang
 forward with a loud cheer against their dismayed antagonists, 
In an
 instant the compact mass of THE—FRENCH spread out into a rabble, 
 they fled back down the hill, 
pursued by Maitland's men, 
 returned to their position in time to take part in the repulse of the
 second column of THE—IMPERIAL—Guard.
 This column also advanced with great spirit and firmness under the
 cannonade which was opened on it, 
 and passing by THE—EASTern wall of
diverged slightly to the right as it moved up the slope
 towards THE—BRITISH position, 
so as to approach nearly the same spot
 where the 1, 
column had surmounted the height, 
been defeated.
 This enabled THE—BRITISH regiments of Adams's brigade to form a line
 parallel to the left flank of THE—FRENCH column, 
 so that while the front
 of this column of French Guards had to encounter the cannonade of the
 British batteries, 
the musketry of Maitlands Guards, 
its left flank
 was assailed with a destructive fire by a four-deep body of British
extending all along it, 
In such a position all the bravery
 and skill of THE—FRENCH veterans were vain, 
The second column, 
like its
 predecessor, 
broke and fled, 
taking at 1, 
a lateral direction along
 the front of THE—BRITISH line towards the rear of LA—HAYE Sainte, 
 so becoming blended with the divisions of French infantry, 
which under
 Donzelot had been assailing THE—ALLIES so formidably in that quarter.
 The sight of the Old Guard broken and in flight checked the ardour which
 Donzelot's troops had hitherto displayed, 
began to waver.
 Adams's victorious brigade was pressing after the flying Guard, 
 cleared away the assailants of the allied centre, 
But the battle was
 NOT—YET won, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had still some battalions in reserve near La Belle
 Alliance, 
He was rapidly rallying the remains of the 1, 
column of his
he had collected into one body the remnants of the various
 corps of cavalry, 
which had suffered so severely in the earlier part of
 THE—DAY, 
THE—DUKE instantly formed the bold resolution of now himself
 becoming the assailant, 
leading his successful though enfeebled army
while the disheartening effect of the repulse of the Imperial
 Guard on the rest of THE—FRENCH—ARMY was still strong, 
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE and Ney could rally the beaten veterans themselves for another
 and a fiercer charge, 
As the close approach of THE—PRUSSIANS now
 completely protected THE—DUKE's left, 
he had drawn some reserves of
 horse from that quarter, 
he had a brigade of Hussars under Vivian
 fresh and ready at hand, 
Without a moment's hesitation he launched these
 against the cavalry near La Belie Alliance, 
The charge was as successful
 as it was daring: and as there was now no hostile cavalry to check
 THE—BRITISH infantry in a forward movement, 
THE—DUKE gave the
 long-wished-for command for a general advance of THE—ARMY along the
 whole line upon the foe, 
It was now past 8 o'clock, 
for nearly
 nine deadly hours had THE—BRITISH and German regiments stood unflinching
 under the fire of artillery, 
the charge of cavalry, 
every variety of
which the compact columns or the scattered tirailleurs of the
 enemy's infantry could inflict, 
As they joyously sprang forward against
 the discomfited masses of THE—FRENCH 
the setting sun broke through the
 clouds which had obscured the sky
             —DURING—the greater part of THE—DAY,
 and glittered on the bayonets of THE—ALLIES, 
while they poured down into
 the valley and towards the heights that were held by the foe, 
 himself was among the foremost in the advance, 
personally directed
 the movements against each body of THE—FRENCH that essayed resistance.
 He rode in front of Adams's brigade, 
cheering it forward, 
 galloped among the most advanced of THE—BRITISH skirmishers,
 speaking joyously to the men, 
receiving their hearty shouts of
 congratulation, 
The bullets of both friends and foes were whistling fast
 round him, 
 and one of THE—FEW survivors of his staff remonstrated with
 him for thus exposing a life of such value, 
"Never mind," was THE—DUKE's
 answer, 
--"Never mind, 
let them fire away, 
 the battle's won, 
my life
 is of no consequence now." And, 
almost the whole of THE—FRENCH
 host was now in irreparable confusion, 
The PREUSSEN—army was coming more
 and more rapidly forwards on their right, 
 and the Young Guard, 
 had held Planchenoit so bravely, 
was at last compelled to give way, 
Some
 regiments of the Old Guard in vain endeavoured to form in squares and
 stem the current, 
They were swept away, 
wrecked among the waves of
 the flyers, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE had placed himself in one of these squares: Marshal
 Soult, 
GENERALs Bertrand, 
Drouot, 
Corbineau, 
De Flahaut, 
Gourgaud,
 were with him, 
THE—EMPEROR spoke of dying on the field, 
but Soult seized
 his bridle and turned his charger round, 
exclaiming, 
"Sire, 
are not the
 enemy ALREADY lucky enough?" 
[Colonel Lemonnier-Delafosse, 
"Memoires,"—PAGE—388, 
The Colonel states that he heard these details from GENERAL
 Gourgaud himself, 
THE—ENGLISH reader will be reminded of CHARLES—I.'s
 retreat from Naseby] 
With the greatest difficulty, 
only by the
 utmost exertion of the devoted officers round him, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE cleared the
 throng of fugitives, 
escaped from the scene of the battle and the
which he and FRANCE had lost past all recovery, 
Meanwhile THE—DUKE
 of WELLINGTON still rode forward with the van of his victorious troops,
 until he reined up on the elevated ground near Rossomme, 
THE—DAYlight
 was now entirely gone, 
 but the young moon had risen, 
the light which
 it cast, 
aided by the glare from the burning houses and other buildings
 in the line of the flying French and pursuing Prussians, 
enabled the
 Duke to assure himself that his victory was complete, 
He then rode back
 along the Charleroi road toward Waterloo: and near La Belle Alliance he
 met Marshal Blucher, 
Warm were the congratulations that were exchanged
 between the Allied Chiefs, 
It was arranged that THE—PRUSSIANS should
 follow up the pursuit, 
give THE—FRENCH no chance of rallying.
 Accordingly THE—BRITISH army, 
exhausted by its toils and sufferings
             —DURING that dreadful day, 
did not advance beyond the heights which the
 enemy had occupied, 
But THE—PRUSSIANS drove the fugitives before them
 in merciless chase —THROUGHOUT the night, 
Cannon, 
baggage, 
 materiel of THE—ARMY were abandoned by THE—FRENCH 
 and many thousands
 of the infantry threw away their arms to facilitate their escape, 
 ground was strewn for miles with the wrecks of their host, 
There was no
 rear-guard, 
 nor was even the semblance of order attempted, 
an attempt
 at resistance was made at the bridge and village of Genappe, 
the 1.
 narrow pass through which the bulk of THE—FRENCH retired, 
The —SITUATION
 was favourable, 
 and a few resolute battalions, 
if ably commanded, 
 have held their pursuers at bay there for some considerable time, 
 despair and panic were now universal in the beaten army, 
At the 1.
 sound of the PREUSSEN—drums and bugles, 
Genappe was abandoned, 
 nothing thought of but headlong flight, 
under GENERAL
 Gneisenau, 
still followed and still slew, 
 nor even when the Prussian
 infantry stopped in sheer exhaustion, 
was the pursuit given up.
 Gneisenau still pushed on with the cavalry, 
 and by an ingenious
 stratagem, 
made THE—FRENCH believe that his infantry were still close on
scared them from every spot where they attempted to pause and
 rest, 
He mounted one of his drummers on a horse which had been taken
 from the captured carriage of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
made him ride along with
 the pursuing cavalry, 
beat the drum whenever they came on any large
 number of THE—FRENCH 
THE—FRENCH thus fled, 
THE—PRUSSIANS pursued
 through 4 Bras, 
even over the heights of Frasne, 
 and when at
 length Gneisenau drew bridle, 
halted a little beyond Frasne with the
 scanty remnant of keen hunters who had kept up the chace with him to
 the last, 
THE—FRENCH were scattered through Gosselies, 
Marchiennes,
 and Charleroi, 
 and were striving to regain the left bank of the river
 Sambre, 
which they had crossed in such pomp and pride not a hundred
 hours before.
 Part of THE—FRENCH left wing endeavoured to escape from the field
 without blending with the main body of the fugitives who thronged
 the Genappe causeway, 
A French officer, 
who was among those who thus
 retreated across THE—COUNTRY westward of THE—HIGH-road, 
 vividly described what he witnessed and what he suffered, 
Colonel
 Lemonnier-Delafosse served IN—THE—CAMPAIGN—OF—1815 in GENERAL Foy's
 staff, 
was consequently in that part of THE—FRENCH—ARMY at Waterloo,
 which acted against Hougoumont and THE—BRITISH right wing, 
 column of THE—IMPERIAL—Guard made their great charge at the end of
the troops of Foy's division advanced in support of them, 
 Colonel Lemonnier-Delafosse describes the confident hopes of victory
 and promotion with which he marched to that attack, 
the fearful
 carnage and confusion of the assailants, 
amid which he was helplessly
 hurried back by his flying comrades, 
He then narrates the closing scene,
[Col, 
Lemonnier-Delafosse, 
"Memoires,"—PAGE—385-405, 
There are omissions
 and abridgments in the translation which I have given]:
 "Near one of the hedges of Hougoumont farm, 
without even a drummer to
 beat the RAPPEL, 
we succeeded in rallying under the enemy's fire 300
 men: they were nearly all that remained of our splendid division,
 Thither came together a—BAND—of generals, 
There was Reille, 
whose horse
 had been shot under him, 
 there were D'Erlon, 
Bachelu, 
Jamin, 
All were gloomy and sorrowful, 
like vanquished men, 
Their words were,--'Here is all that is left of my corps, 
of my division, 
of my brigade, 
I, 
myself.' We had seen the FALL—OF—Duhesme, 
 Pelet-de-Morvan, 
of Michel--generals who had found a glorious death, 
My
 GENERAL, 
had his shoulder pierced through by a musket-ball: and out
 of his whole staff two officers only were left to him, 
Cahour Duhay and I, 
Fate had spared me in the midst of so many dangers, 
though the 1.
 charger I rode had been shot and had fallen on me.
 "The enemy's horse were coming down on us, 
our little group was
 obliged to retreat, 
'What had happened to our DIVISION—OF—the left wing
 had taken place all along the line, 
The movement of the hostile cavalry,
 which inundated the whole plain, 
had demoralised our soldiers, 
 seeing all regular retreat of THE—ARMY cut off, 
strove each man to
 effect one for himself, 
At each instant the road became more encumbered.
 Infantry, 
cavalry, 
were pressing along pell-mell: jammed
 together like a solid mass, 
Figure to yourself 40,000—MEN struggling and
 thrusting themselves along a single causeway, 
We could not take that way
 without destruction, 
 so the generals who had collected together near the
 Hougoumont hedge dispersed across the fields, 
GENERAL Foy alone remained
 with the 300—MEN whom he had gleaned from the field of battle, 
 marched at their head, 
Our anxiety was to withdraw from the scene of
 ACTION without being confounded with the fugitives, 
Our general wished
 to retreat like a true soldier, 
Seeing 3 lights —IN—THE—southern
 horizon, 
like beacons, 
GENERAL Foy asked me what I thought of the
 position of each, 
I answered, 
'The 1, 
to the left is Genappe, 
 second is at Bois de Bossu, 
near the farm of 4 Bras, 
 the third is
 at Gosselies.' 'Let us march on the second one, 
then,' replied Foy, 
'and
 let no obstacle stop us--take the HEAD—OF—the column, 
do not lose
 sight of the guiding light.' Such was his order, 
I strove to obey.
 "After all the —AGITATION and the incessant din of a long day of battle,
 how imposing was the stillness of that night!  
We proceeded on our sad
 and lonely march, 
We were a prey to the most cruel reflections, 
we were
 humiliated, 
we were hopeless, 
 but not a word of complaint was heard, 
 walked silently as a troop of mourners, 
it might have been said
 that we were attending the funeral of our country's glory, 
Suddenly the
 stillness was broken by a challenge,--'QUI VIVE?' 'FRANCE!' 'KELLERMAN!'
 'Foy!' 'Is it you, 
GENERAL? come nearer to us.' At that moment we were
 passing over a little hillock, 
at the foot of which was a hut, 
 KELLERMAN and some of his officers had halted, 
They came out to join
 as Foy said to me, 
'KELLERMAN knows THE—COUNTRY: he has been along here
 before with his cavalry, 
 we had better follow him.' But we found that
 the direction which KELLERMAN chose was towards the 1, 
light, 
towards
That led to the causeway which our general rightly wished to
 avoid I went to the left to reconnoitre, 
was soon convinced that
 such was the case, 
It was then that I was able to form a full idea of
 the disorder of a routed army, 
What a hideous spectacle!  
The mountain
 torrent, 
that uproots and whirls along with it every momentary obstacle,
 is a feeble image of that heap of men, 
of horses, 
of equipages, 
rushing
 one upon another, 
 gathering before the least obstacle which dams up
 their way for a few seconds, 
only to form a mass which overthrows
 everything in the path which it forces for itself, 
Woe to him whose
 footing failed him in that deluge!  
He was crushed, 
trampled to death!  
 returned and told my general what I had seen, 
he instantly abandoned
resumed his original line of march.
 "Keeping straight across THE—COUNTRY over fields and the rough thickets,
 we at last arrived at the Bois de Bossu, 
where we halted, 
My GENERAL
 said to me, 
'Go to the farm of 4 Bras and announce that we are
THE—EMPEROR or Soult must be there, 
Ask for orders, 
recollect
 that I am waiting here for you, 
The lives of these men depend on your
 exactness.' To reach the farm I was obliged to cross THE—HIGH road: I
 was on horseback, 
but nevertheless was borne away by the crowd that fled
 along the road, 
it was long are I could extricate myself and reach
 the farmhouse, 
GENERAL Lobau was there with his staff, 
resting in
 fancied security, 
They thought that their troops had halted there, 
 though a halt had been attempted, 
the men had soon fled forwards, 
 their comrades of the rest of THE—ARMY, 
The shots of the approaching
 Prussians were now heard, 
 and I believe that GENERAL Lobau was taken
 prisoner in that farmhouse, 
I left him to rejoin my general, 
which I
 did with difficulty, 
I found him alone, 
His men, 
as they came near the
 current of flight, 
were infected with the general panic, 
fled also.
 "What was to be done? Follow that crowd of runaways? GENERAL Foy would
 not hear of it, 
There were 5 of us still with him, 
all officers, 
 had been wounded at about 5 in the afternoon, 
the wound had not
 been dressed, 
He suffered severely, 
 but his moral courage was unbroken.
 'Let us keep,' he said, 
'a line parallel to THE—HIGH road, 
work our
 way hence as we best can.' A foot-track was before us, 
we followed
 it.
 "The moon shone out brightly, 
revealed the full wretchedness of the
 TABLEAU which met our eyes, 
A brigadier and 4 cavalry soldiers, 
whom
 we met with, 
formed our escort, 
We marched on, 
as the noise grew
 more distant, 
I thought that we were losing the parallel of THE—HIGHway.
 Finding that we had the moon more and more on the left, 
I felt sure of
 this, 
mentioned it to the GENERAL, 
Absorbed in thought, 
he made me
 no reply, 
We came in front of a windmill, 
endeavoured to procure
 some information, 
 but we could not gain an entrance, 
or make any one
we continued our nocturnal march, 
At last we entered a
but found every door closed against us, 
were obliged to use
 threats in order to gain admission into a single house, 
The poor woman
 to whom it belonged, 
more dead than alive, 
received us as if we had been
Before asking where we were, 
'Food, 
give as some food!' was our
 cry, 
Bread and butter and beer were brought, 
soon disappeared before
 men who had fasted for twenty-four hours, 
A little revived, 
we ask,
 'Where are we? what is the name of this village?'--'Vieville.'
 "On looking at the map, 
I saw that in coming to that village we had
 leaned too much to the right, 
that we were in the direction of Mons.
 In order to reach the Sambre at the bridge of Marchiennes, 
we had four
 leagues to traverse, 
 and there was scarcely time to march the distance
 before daybreak, 
I made a vil—LAGER act as our guide, 
bound him by
 his arm to my stirrup, 
He led us through Roux to Marchiennes, 
 poor fellow ran alongside of my horse the whole way, 
It was cruel, 
 necessary to compel him, 
for we had not an instant to spare, 
At 6 in
 the morning we entered Marchiennes.
 "Marshal Ney was there, 
Our general went to see him, 
to ask what
 orders he had to give, 
Ney was asleep, 
rather than rob him of the 1, 
repose he had had for 4 days, 
our GENERAL returned to us
 without seeing him, 
what orders could Marshal Ney have
 given? The whole army was crossing the Sambre, 
each man where and now he
 chose, 
 some at Charleroi, 
some at Marchiennes, 
We were about to do the
 same thing, 
When once beyond the Sambre we might safely halt, 
 and both
 men and horses were in extreme need of rest, 
We passed through Thuin; and finding a little copse near the road, 
we gladly sought its shelter.
 While our horses grazed, 
we lay down and slept, 
How sweet was that sleep
 after the fatigues of the long day of battle, 
after the night of
 retreat more painful still!  
We rested in the little copse till noon, 
 sate there watching the wrecks of our army defile along the road before
It was a soul-harrowing sight!  
Yet the different arms of the service
 had resumed a certain degree of order amid their disorder, 
feeling his strength revive, 
resolved to follow a strong
 column of cavalry which was taking the direction of Beaumont, 
about four
 leagues off, 
We drew near Beaumont, 
when suddenly a regiment of horse
 was seen debouching from a wood on our left, 
The column that we followed
 shouted out, 
'THE—PRUSSIANS!  
THE—PRUSSIANS!' and galloped off in utter
The troops that thus alarmed them were not a tenth part of
 their number, 
were in reality our own 8th Hussars, 
who wore
 green uniforms, 
But the panic had been brought even thus far from the
the disorganized column galloped into Beaumont, 
 was ALREADY crowded with our infantry, 
We were obliged to follow that
 DEBACLE, 
On entering Beaumont we chose a house of superior appearance,
 and demanded of the mistress of it refreshments for the GENERAL, 
'Alas!'
 said the lady, 
'this is the tenth GENERAL who has been to this house
 since this morning, 
I have nothing left, 
Search, 
if you please, 
 see.' Though unable to find food for the GENERAL, 
I persuaded him to
 take his coat off and let me examine his wound, 
The bullet had gone
 through the twists of the left epaulette, 
penetrating the skin, 
 run round the shoulder without injuring the bone, 
The lady of THE—HOUSE
 made some lint for me, 
 and without any great degree of surgical skill I
 succeeded in dressing the wound.
 "Being still anxious to procure some food for the GENERAL and
 ourselves, 
if it were but a loaf of ammunition bread, 
I left THE—HOUSE
 and rode out into THE—TOWN, 
I saw pillage going on in every direction:
 open caissons, 
stripped and half-broken, 
blocked up the streets, 
 pavement was covered with plundered and torn baggage, 
Pillagers and
 runaways, 
such were all the comrades I met with, 
Disgusted at them, 
 strove, 
to stop one of the plunderers, 
more active
 than I, 
he gave me a bayonet stab in my left arm, 
in which I fortunately
 caught his thrust, 
which had been aimed full at my body, 
He disappeared
 among the crowd, 
through which I could not force my horse, 
My spirit of
 discipline had made me forget that in such circumstances the soldier is
 a mere wild beast, 
But to be wounded by a fellow-countryman after
 having passed unharmed through all the perils of 4 Bras and
 Waterloo!--this did seem hard, 
I was trying to return to GENERAL
 Foy, 
when another horde of flyers burst into Beaumont, 
swept me into the
 current of their flight, 
hurried me out of THE—TOWN with them, 
Until
 I received my wound I had preserved my moral courage in full force, 
 now, 
worn out with fatigue, 
covered with blood, 
suffering
 severe pain from the wound, 
I own that I gave way to the general
 demoralisation, 
let myself be inertly borne along with the rushing
 mass, 
At last I reached Landrecies, 
though I know not how or when, 
 I found there our Colonel Hurday, 
who had been left behind there in
 consequence of an accidental injury from a carriage, 
He took me with
 him to PARIS, 
where I retired amid my family, 
got cured of my wound,
 knowing nothing of the rest of political and MILITARY events that were
 taking place."
 No returns ever were made of the amount of THE—FRENCH loss in the battle
 but it must have been immense, 
may be partially judged
 of by the amount of killed and wounded in the armies of the conquerors.
 On this subject both the PREUSSEN—and British official evidence is
 unquestionably full and authentic, 
The figures are terribly emphatic.
 Of THE—ARMY that fought under THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON nearly 15,000—MEN
 were killed and wounded on this single day of battle, 
Seven thousand
 Prussians also fell at Waterloo, 
At such a fearful price was the
 deliverance of Europe purchased.
 By none was the severity of that loss more keenly felt than by our great
 deliverer himself, 
As may be seen in Major Macready's narrative, 
while the battle was raging, 
betrayed no sign of emotion at
 the most ghastly casualties, 
when all was over, 
the sight of the
 carnage with which the field was covered, 
the sickening
 spectacle of the agonies of the wounded men who lay moaning in their
 misery by thousands and tens of thousands, 
weighed heavily on the spirit
 of the victor, 
as he rode back across the scene of strife, 
On reaching
 his HEAD—QUARTERs IN—THE—VILLAGE—OF—Waterloo, 
THE—DUKE inquired
 anxiously after the numerous friends who had been round him in the
 morning, 
to whom he was warmly attached, 
Many he was told were dead; others were lying alive, 
but mangled and suffering, 
IN—THE—HOUSEs
It is in our hero's own words alone that his feelings can be
 adequately told, 
In a letter written by him almost immediately after his
 return from the field, 
he thus expressed himself:--"My heart is broken
 by the terrible loss I have sustained in my old friends and companions,
 and my poor soldiers, 
Believe me, 
nothing except a battle lost, 
 be half so melancholy as a battle won, 
 the bravery of my troops has
 hitherto saved me from the greater evil, 
 but to win such a battle as
 this of Waterloo, 
at the expense of so many gallant friends, 
could only
 be termed a heavy misfortune but for the result to THE—PUBLIC."
 It is not often that a successful GENERAL in modern warfare is called
like the victorious commander of THE—ANCIENT Greek armies, 
to award a prize of superior valour to one of his soldiers, 
Such was to some extent the case with respect to —BATTLE—OF—Waterloo, 
18180800             In the of , an English clergyman offered to confer a small annuity on some Waterloo soldier, to be named by THE—DUKE, 
[Siborne, VOLUME—I—PAGE—391]
18180800             In the of ,THE—DUKE requested Sir John Byng to choose a man from the 2d Brigade of Guards, which had so highly distinguished itself in the defence of Hougoumont, 
18180800             In the of ,There were many gallant candidates, but the —ELECTION fell on Sergeant James Graham, of the light company of the Coldstreams, 
This brave man had signalised himself, throughout THE—DAY, in the defence of that important post, and, 
especially in the critical struggle that took place at the period when THE—FRENCH who had gained the wood, the orchard, and, detached garden, 
succeeded in bursting open a gate of THE—COURTyard of the chateau itself, and, rushed in in large masses, confident of carrying all before them, 
A hand-to-hand fight, of the most desperate character, was kept up between them and the Guards for a few minutes, but at last THE—BRITISH bayonets prevailed, 
Nearly all THE—FRENCHmen who had forced their way in were killed on the spot, 
 as THE—FEW survivors ran back, 
5 of the Guards, 
Colonel Macdonnell,
 Captain Wyndham, 
Ensign Gooch, 
Ensign Hervey, 
Sergeant Graham, 
 sheer strength, 
closed the gate AGAIN, 
in spite of the efforts of the
 French from without, 
effectually BARRICADEd it against further assaults, 
Over and through the loopholed wall of THE—COURTyard, 
THE—ENGLISH garrison now kept up a deadly fire of musketry, 
which was fiercely answered by THE—FRENCH 
who swarmed round the curtilage like ravening wolves, 
Shells, 
from their batteries, 
were falling fast
 into the besieged place, 
one of which set part of the mansion and some
 of the out-buildings on fire, 
Graham, 
who was —AT—THIS—TIME standing
 near Colonel Macdonnell at the wall, 
who had shown the most perfect
 steadiness and courage, 
now asked permission of his commanding officer
 to retire for a moment, 
Macdonnell replied, 
"By all means, 
 I wonder you should ask leave now." Graham answered, 
"I would not, 
sir,
 only my brother is wounded, 
he is in that out-building there, 
 has just caught fire." Laying down his musket, 
Graham ran to the blazing
lifted up his brother, 
laid him in a ditch, 
Then he was back
 at his post, 
was plying his musket against THE—FRENCH AGAIN, 
 his absence was noticed, 
except by his colonel.
 Many anecdotes of individual prowess have been preserved: but of all
 the brave men who were in THE—BRITISH army on that eventful day, 
none
 deserve more honour for courage and indomitable resolution than Sir
 THOMAS Picton, 
as has been mentioned, 
fell in repulsing the great
 attack of THE—FRENCH upon THE—BRITISH left centre, 
It was not until the
 dead body was examined after the battle, 
that the full heroism of Picton
 was discerned, 
He had been wounded on the 16th, 
 musket-ball, 
which had broken two of his ribs, 
caused also severe
 internal injuries, 
 but he had concealed the circumstance, 
evidently in
 expectation that another and greater battle would be fought in a short
desirous to avoid being solicited to absent himself from the
His body was blackened and swollen by the wound, 
 caused severe and incessant pain, 
 and it was marvellous how his spirit
 had borne him up, 
enabled him to take part in the fatigues and
 duties of the field, 
The bullet which, 
on the 18th, 
killed the renowned
 loader of "the fighting Division" of the PENINSULA, 
entered the head
 near the left temple, 
passed through the brain, 
 so that Picton's
 death must have been instantaneous.
 One of the most interesting narratives of personal adventure at
is that of Colonel Frederick Ponsonby, 
of the 12th Light
 Dragoons, 
who was severely wounded when Vandeleur's brigade, 
 belonged, 
attacked THE—FRENCH lancers, 
in order to bring off the Union
which was retiring from its memorable charge, 
[SEE—PAGE—361, 
SUPRA] 
 The 12th, 
like those whom they rescued, 
advanced much further
 against THE—FRENCH position than prudence warranted, 
Ponsonby, 
with many
was speared by a reserve of Polish lancers, 
left for dead
It is well to refer to the description of what he suffered
 (as he afterwards gave it, 
when almost miraculously recovered from his
 numerous wounds), 
because his fate, 
or worse, 
was the fate of thousands
 and because the narrative of the pangs of an individual, 
with whom
 we can identify ourselves, 
always COMES more home to us than a general
 description of the miseries of whole masses, 
His tale may make us
 remember what are the horrors of war as well as its glories, 
It is to
 be remembered that THE—OPERATIONs which he refers to, 
took place about
 3 o'clock in THE—DAY, 
that the fighting went on for at least
 5—HOURS more, 
After describing how he and his men charged through the
 French whom they 1, 
encountered, 
went against other enemies, 
 states:--
 "We had no sooner passed them than we were ourselves attacked before
 we could form, 
by about 300 Polish lancers, 
who had hastened to their
 THE—FRENCH artillery pouring in among us a heavy fire of grape,
 though for one of our men they killed 3 of their own.
 "In the MELEE I was almost instantly disabled in both arms, 
losing
my sword, 
then my reins, 
followed by a few men, 
 presently cut down, 
no quarter being allowed, 
asked or given, 
 carried along by my horse, 
till, 
receiving a blow from a sabre, 
I fell
 senseless on my face to the ground.
 "Recovering, 
I raised myself a little to look round, 
being AT—THAT—TIME,
 I believe, 
in a condition to get up and run away, 
 when a lancer passing
'Tu n'est pas mort, 
coquin!' and struck his lance through
 my back, 
My head dropped, 
the blood gushed into my mouth, 
a difficulty
 of breathing came on, 
I thought all was over.
 "Not long afterwards (it was impossible to measure time, 
but I must have
 fallen in less than ten minutes after the onset), 
a tirailleur
 stopped to plunder me, 
threatening my life, 
I directed him to a
 small side-pocket, 
in which he found 3—DOLLARs, 
all I had, 
 he continued to threaten, 
I said he might search me: this he did
 immediately, 
unloosing my stock and tearing open my waistcoat, 
 leaving me in a very uneasy posture.
 "But he was no sooner gone, 
than an officer bringing up some troops,
 to which probably the tirailleur belonged and happening to halt where
 I lay, 
stooped down and addressed me, 
he feared I was badly wounded;  
 I said that I was, 
expressed a wish to be removed to the rear, 
He said it was against their orders to remove even their own men;  
 but that if they gained THE—DAY (and he understood that THE—DUKE of
 WELLINGTON was killed, 
that some of our battalions had surrendered),
 every attention in his power would be shown me, 
I complained of thirst,
 and he held his brandy-bottle to my lips, 
directing one of the soldiers
 to lay me straight on my side, 
place a knapsack under my head, 
 then passed on into ACTION--soon, 
to want, 
though not receive,
 the same assistance, 
 and I shall never know to whose generosity I was
 indebted, 
as I believe, 
for my life, 
Of what rank he was, 
I cannot say:
 he wore a great coat, 
By-and-by another tirailleur came up, 
a fine
 young man, 
full of ardour, 
He knelt down and fired over me, 
loading and
 firing maNEW—YORK—TIMES, 
conversing with me all the while." THE—FRENCHman,
 with strange coolness, 
informed Ponsonby of how he was shooting, 
 what he thought of the progress of the battle, 
"At last he ran off,
 exclaiming, 
'You will probably not be sorry to hear that we are going
 to retreat, 
Good day, 
my friend.' It was dusk," Ponsonby adds, 
"when two
 squadrons of PREUSSEN—cavalry, 
each of them two deep, 
came across the
passed over me in full trot, 
lifting me from the ground,
 and tumbling me about cruelly, 
The clatter of of their approach and the
 apprehensions they excited, 
may be imagined, 
 a gun taking that direction
 must have destroyed me.
 "The battle was now at an end, 
or removed to a distance, 
The shouts,
 the imprecations, 
the outcries of 'Vive l'EMPEREUR!' the discharge of
 musketry and cannon, 
were over, 
 and the groans of the wounded all around
 me, 
became every moment more and more audible, 
I thought the night would
 never end.
 "Much about this time I found a soldier of the Royals lying across my
 legs: he had probably crawled thither in his agony, 
 and his weight, 
 convulsive motions, 
the air issuing through a wound in his side,
 distressed me greatly, 
 the last circumstance most of all, 
as I had
 a wound of the same nature myself, 
It was not a dark night, 
 Prussians were wandering about to plunder, 
 the scene in FERDINAND Count
 Fathom came into my mind, 
though no women appeared, 
Several stragglers
 looked at me, 
as they passed by, 
one after another, 
at last one of
 them stopped to examine me, 
I told him as well as I could, 
for I spoke
 German very imperfectly, 
that I was a British officer, 
 plundered ALREADY, 
 he did not desist, 
pulled me about
 roughly.
 "An hour before midnight I saw a man in an English uniform walking
 towards me, 
He was, 
I suspect, 
on the same errand, 
he came and
 looked in my face, 
I spoke instantly, 
telling him who I was, 
 assuring him of a reward if he would remain by me, 
He said he belonged
 to the 40th, 
had missed his regiment, 
 he released me from the dying
being unarmed, 
took up a sword from the ground, 
 over me, 
pacing backwards and forwards.
 "Day broke, 
 and at 6 o'clock in the morning some English were seen at
 a distance, 
he ran to them, 
A messenger being sent off to Hervey, 
 cart came for me, 
I was placed in it, 
carried to the village
a mile and a half off, 
laid in the bed from which as I
 understood afterwards, 
Gordon had been just carried out, 
I had received
 seven wounds, 
 a surgeon slept in my room, 
I was saved by excessive
 bleeding."
 Major Macready, 
in the journal ALREADY cited, 
[See SUPRA—PAGE—368]
 justly praises the deep devotion to their Emperor which, 
marked the
 French at Waterloo, 
Never, 
had THE—NATIONAL bravery of the
 French people been more nobly shown, 
One soldier IN—THE—FRENCH ranks was
when his arm was shattered by a cannon-ball, 
to wrench it off with
 and throwing it up in the air, 
he exclaimed to his comrades,
 "Vive l'EMPEREUR jusqu'a la mort!" Colonel Lemonnier-Delafosse mentions
 in his Memoirs, 
[Page 388] 
that at—THE—BEGINNING—OF the ACTION, 
 French soldier who had had both legs carried off by a cannon-ball,
 was borne past the front of Foy's division, 
called out to them, 
"Ca
 n'est rien, 
camarades, 
 Vive l'EMPEREUR!  
Gloire a LA—FRANCE!" The same
 officer, 
at the end of the battle, 
when all hope was lost, 
tells us that
 he saw a French grenadier, 
blackened with powder, 
with his clothes
 torn and stained, 
leaning on his musket, 
immoveable as a statue.
 The colonel called to him to join his comrades and retreat, 
 grenadier showed him his musket and his hands, 
 and said, 
"These
 hands have with this musket used to-day more than twenty packets of
 cartridges: it was more than my share: I supplied myself with ammunition
 from the dead, 
Leave me to die here on the field of battle, 
It is not
 courage that fails me, 
but strength." Then, 
as Colonel Delafosse left
the soldier stretched himself on the ground to meet his fate,
"Tout est perdu!  
pauvre FRANCE!" The gallantry of THE—FRENCH
 officers at least equalled that of their men, 
 the example of the most daring courage, 
Here, 
as in every FRENCH—ARMY
 in which he ever served or commanded, 
he was "le brave des braves."
 —THROUGHOUT THE—DAY he was in the front of the battle, 
 and was one of the
 very last Frenchmen who quitted the field, 
His horse was killed under
 him in the last attack made on THE—ENGLISH position, 
 but he was seen
 on foot, 
his clothes torn with bullets, 
his face smirched with powder,
 striving, 
to urge his men forward, 
at last to
 check their flight.
 There was another brave general of THE—FRENCH—ARMY, 
whose valour and
 good conduct on that day of disaster to his nation should never be
 unnoticed when the story of Waterloo is recounted, 
This was GENERAL
 Polet, 
about seven in the evening, 
led the 1, 
battalion of the
 2d regiment of the Chasseurs of the Guard to the defence of Planchenoit; and on whom NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE personally urged the deep importance of maintaining
 possession of that village, 
Pelet and his men took their post in the
 central part of the village, 
occupied THE—CHURCH and churchyard in
 great strength, 
There they repelled every assault of THE—PRUSSIANS,
 who in rapidly increasing numbers rushed forward with infuriated
 pertinacity, 
They held their post till the utter rout of the main army
 of their comrades was apparent, 
the victorioUS—ALLIES were thronging
 around Planchenoit, 
When Pelet and his brave chasseurs quitted the
 churchyard, 
retired with steady march, 
though they suffered
 fearfully from the moment they left their shelter, 
PREUSSEN—cavalry
 as well as infantry dashed fiercely after them, 
Pelet kept together a
 little knot of 250 veterans, 
had the eagle covered over, 
borne
 along in the midst of them, 
At one time the inequality of the ground
 caused his ranks to open a little, 
 and in an instant the Prussian
 horseman were on them, 
striving to capture the eagle, 
Captain
 Siborne relates the conduct of Pelet with the admiration worthy of one
 brave soldier for another:--
 "Pelet, 
taking advantage of a spot of ground which afforded them some
 degree of cover against the fire of grape by which they were constantly
 assailed, 
halted the standard-bearer, 
"A moi chasseurs!
 sauvons l'aigle ou mourons autour d'elle!" The chasseurs immediately
 pressed around him, 
forming what is usually termed the rallying square,
lowering their bayonets, 
succeeded in repulsing the charge of
Some guns were then brought to bear upon them, 
subsequently
 a brisk fire of musketry, 
 but notwithstanding the awful sacrifice which
 was thus offered up in defence of their precious charge, 
they succeeded
 in reaching the main line of retreat, 
favoured by the universal
as also by the general obscurity which now prevailed, 
 thus saved alike the eagle and the honour of THE—REGIMEnt."
 French writers do injustice to their own army and general, 
 revive malignant calumnies against WELLINGTON, 
speak of his having
 blundered into victory, 
No blunderer could have successfully encountered
 such troops as those of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
under such a leader, 
 superfluous to cite against these cavils the testimony which other
 continental critics have borne to THE—HIGH MILITARY genius of our
 illustrious chief, 
I refer to one only, 
which is of peculiar value, 
 acCOUNT—OF—the quarter whence it COMES, 
It is that of the great German
 writer Niebuhr, 
whose accurate acquaintance with every important scene
 of modern as well as ancient history was unparalleled: and who was no
 mere pedant, 
but a man practically versed in active life, 
 personally acquainted with most of the leading men in the great events
 of the —EARLY, part of this century, 
Niebuhr, 
in the —PASSAGE which I
 allude to, 
[ROMAn History—VOLUME—v—PAGE—17] 
after referring to the
 MILITARY "blunders" of Mithridates, 
FREDERICK—THE—GREAT, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE,
uses these remarkable words, 
"THE—DUKE of
 WELLINGTON is, 
I believe, 
the only general in whose conduct of war we
 cannot discover any important mistake." Not that it is to be supposed
 that THE—DUKE's merits were simply of a negative order, 
or that he was
 merely a cautious, 
phlegmatic general fit only for defensive warfare,
 as some recent French historians have described him, 
On the contrary,
 he was bold even to audacity when boldness was required, 
"The intrepid
 advance and fight at Assaye, 
the crossing of the Douro, 
the movement
 on TALAVERA in 1809, 
the advance to MADRID and BURGOS in 1812, 
 actions before Bayonne in 1813, 
the desperate stand made at Waterloo
when more tamely-prudent generals would have retreated beyond
place this beyond a doubt." 
[See the admirable parallel of
 WELLINGTON and Marlborough at the end of Sir Archibald Alison's "Life of
 THE—DUKE—OF—Marlborough." Sir Archibald justly considers WELLINGTON the
 more daring general of the two]
 The overthrow of THE—FRENCH MILITARY—POWER at Waterloo was so complete,
 that the subsequent events of the brief campaign have little interest.
 Lamartine truly says: "This defeat left nothing undecided in future
 events, 
for victory had given judgment, 
THE—WAR began and ended in a
 single battle." NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE himself recognised instantly and fully the
 deadly nature of the blow which had been dealt to his empire, 
In his
 flight from the battle-field he 1, 
halted at Charleroi, 
 approach of the pursuing Prussians drove him thence before he had rested
 there an hour, 
With difficulty getting clear of the wrecks of his own
he reached PHILIPPEville, 
where he remained a few hours, 
 orders to THE—FRENCH generals in the various extremities of FRANCE to
 converge with their troops upon PARIS, 
He ordered Soult to collect
 the fugitives of his own force, 
lead them to LAON, 
He then hurried
 forward to PARIS, 
reached his capital before THE—NEWS of his own
 defeat, 
But the stern truth soon transpired, 
At the demand of the
 Chambers of Peers and Representatives, 
he abandoned the throne by a
 second and final abdication on the 22d of June, 
On the 29th of June he
 left the neighbourhood of PARIS, 
proceeded to Rochefort in the hope
 of escaping to America, 
 but the coast was strictly watched, 
 15th of.;;07;;the ex-emperor surrendered himself on board of THE—ENGLISH
 man-of-war the Bellerophon.
 Meanwhile the allied armies had advanced steadily upon PARIS, 
driving
 before them Grouchy's corps, 
the scanty force which Soult had
 succeeded in rallying at LAON, 
CAMBRAY[CAMBRAI], 
Peronne, 
other fortresses
 were speedily captured, 
 and by the 29th of June the invaders were taking
 their positions in front of PARIS, 
The Provisional Government, 
 acted IN—THE—FRENCH capital after THE—EMPEROR's abdication, 
opened
 negotiations with the allied chiefs, 
in his quenchless hatred
 of THE—FRENCH 
was eager to reject all proposals for a suspension of
 hostilities, 
to assault and storm THE—CITY, 
But the sager and
 calmer spirit of WELLINGTON prevailed over his colleague, 
 the entreated
 armistice was granted, 
 and on the 3d of.;;07;;the capitulation of PARIS
 terminated THE—WAR—OF—THE—BATTLE—OF—Waterloo.
 In closing our observations on this the last of the Decisive Battles of
it is pleasing to contrast  
             —THE —YEAR which it signalized with
             —THE —YEAR that is now 
[Written 18510600             —IN, ] 
passing over our heads, 
 have not (and long may we be without) the stern excitement of martial
 strife, 
we see no captive —STANDARDS of our European neighbours
 brought in triumph to our shrines, 
But we behold an infinitely prouder
 spectacle, 
We see the banners of every civilized nation waving over the
 arena of our competition with each other, 
in the arts that minister
 to our race's support and happiness, 
not to its suffering and
 destruction.
 "Peace hath her victories
 No less renowned than War, 
 and no battle-field ever witnessed a victory more noble than that which
under her Sovereign Lady and her Royal Prince, 
is now teaching
 THE—PEOPLEs of the earth to achieve over selfish prejudices and
 international feuds, 
in the great cause of the general promotion of the
 industry and welfare of mankind.
             —DURING—the terrible engagement of the 7th ;;10;;, 
—ON—THE—MORNING—OF—the 8th, 
a prisoner in the American camp, 
That gallant officer was shot through both legs, 
heard a feeble voice exclaim 'Protect me, sir, against that boy.' 
He turned and saw a lad with a musket taking deliberate aim at a wounded British officer, 
lying in a corner of a low fence, 
Wilkinson ordered the boy to desist, and , 
discovered the wounded man to be Major Ackland, 
He had him conveyed to the quarters of GENERAL Poor (now the residence of Mister Neilson) on the heights, 
where every attention was paid to his wants.
 "When THE—INTELLIGENCE that he was wounded and a prisoner reached his oo, she was greatly distressed, 
and, by the advice of her friend, Baron Reidesel, resolved to visit the American camp, and , 
implore the favour of a personal attendance upon her husband, 
On the 9th she sent a message to Burgoyne by Lord PETERsham, his aide-de-camp, 
asking permission to depart, 
 too debilitated by fatigue and hunger to resist an attack if made, 
if the CONVENTION had been broken
the CONVENTION—OF—Saratoga was carried
 into effect, 
By this CONVENTION 5,790—MEN surrendered themselves as
The sick and wounded left in the camp when THE—BRITISH
 retreated to Saratoga, 
together with the numbers of THE—BRITISH, 
German,
 and Canadian troops, 
 deserted in the preceding part of the expedition, 
 THE—BRITISH sick and wounded who had fallen into the hands of the Americans 
 after —BATTLE—OF—the 7th, 
 were treated with exemplary humanity, 
 and when the CONVENTION was executed, 
GENERAL Gates showed a
 noble delicacy of feeling which deserves THE—HIGHest degree of honour.
 Every circumstance was avoided which could give the appearance of
The American troops remained within their lines until the
 British had piled their arms, 
 and when this was done, 
the vanquished
 officers and soldiers were received with friendly kindness by their
 victors, 
their immediate wants were promptly and liberally supplied.
 Discussions and disputes afterwards arose as to some of the terms of the
 CONVENTION, 
 and the American CONGRESS refused for a long time to carry
 into effect the article which provided for the return of Burgoyne's men
 to Europe, 
 showed themselves to be generous as they had proved themselves to be
 brave.
immediately despatched Colonel Wilkinson to
 carry the happy tidings to CONGRESS, 
On being introduced into the hall,
 he said, 
"The whole British army has laid down its arms at Saratoga; our own, 
It is for
 your wisdom to decide where THE—COUNTRY may still have need for their
 service." Honours and rewards were liberally voted by the CONGRESS to
 their conquering general and his men, 
 "and it would be difficult" (says
 the Italian historian) "to describe the transports of joy which the
They began to flatter
 themselves with a still more happy future, 
 good reason, 
 declare themselves in favour of America, 
THERE COULD NO LONGER BE ANY
 QUESTION RESPECTING THE—FUTURE, 
 SINCE THERE WAS NO LONGER THE RISK OF
 ESPOUSING THE CAUSE OF A PEOPLE TOO FEEBLE TO DEFEND THEMSELVES."
 SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE—DEFEAT—OF—BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA, 
 —BATTLE—OF—VALMY, 
17810000             , 
Surrender of Lord Cornwallis and THE—BRITISH army to
 WASHINGTON.
17820000             , 
Rodney's victory over the Spanish fleet, 
Unsuccessful siege of
 GIBRALTAR by THE—SPANIARDS and French.
17830000             , 
End of the American war.
17880000             , 
THE—STATEs-GENERAL are convened in FRANCE:--beginning of the
 REVOLUTION.
 and near the
 crest of that hill, 
a marshal of the
 FRENCH—EMPIRE.
 powers allied against FRANCE gained in 1814 and 1815, 
 In 1830, 
THE—DYNASTY which foreign bayonets had imposed on FRANCE was
 shaken off, 
They "looked forward with
 harassing anxiety to a PERIOD—OF—destruction similar to that which the
 ROMAn world experienced about the middle of the third century of our
 era." 
[See Niebuhr's Preface to the second volume of the "HISTORY—OF—ROMe," written 18301000             —IN, ] 
LOUIS—PHILIPPE cajoled REVOLUTION, 
 then strove with seeming success to stifle it, 
in spite of the dazzle of Algerian razzias and Pyrenees-effacing
 marriages, 
struggled to get
 free, 
 on republican institutions." At last, 
the whole fabric
 of kingcraft was at once rent and scattered to the winds, 
 uprising of the Parisian democracy, 
BARRICADEs and
 dethronements, 
became the commonplaces of recent
 European history.
assumed that title on the
 20th of             ;;09;;, 
on the very DAY—ON—WHICH —BATTLE—OF—Valmy
 was fought and won, 
To that battle the democratic spirit which in
as well as in 1792, 
owed its
 preservation, 
it is thence that the imperishable activity of its
 principles may be dated.
 Far different seemed the prospects of democracy in Europe on the eve of
 that battle, 
 and far different would have been the present position and
 influence of THE—FRENCH nation, 
if Brunswick's columns had charged with
 more boldness, 
or the lines of DUMOURIEZ resisted with less firmness.
 When FRANCE, 
in 1792, 
declared war with the great powers of Europe, 
 was far from possessing that splendid MILITARY ORGANIZATION which the
 experience of a few REVOLUTIONary campaigns taught her to assume, 
 which she has never abandoned, 
THE—ARMY of the old monarchy had, 
 the latter part of THE—REIGN—OF—LOUIS—XV, 
sunk into gradual decay,
in efficiency of equipment and spirit, 
 laurels gained by the auxiliary regiments which LOUIS—XVI, 
sent to the
 American war, 
excesses
 of THE—REVOLUTION introduced among the soldiery, 
Under the Legislative Assembly
 every complaint of the soldier against his officer, 
investigated with
 partiality, 
Discipline
 accordingly became more and more relaxed, 
 and the dissolution of several
 of the old corps, 
aggravated the confusion and inefficiency of the
 war department, 
These had either
 been slaughtered in defence of the throne against INSURRECTIONs, 
 the Swiss, 
had crossed the frontier to
 recruit the forces which were assembling for the —INVASÃON—OF—France.
the emigration of THE—NOBLESse had stripped THE—FRENCH—ARMY
 of nearly all its officers of high rank, 
More than twelve thousand of THE—HIGH-born youth
to whom the nation had been accustomed to look
 up as its natural guides and champions —IN—THE—storm of war, 
 were now
 marshalled beneath the banner of Conde and the other emigrant princes,
the reduction of THE—FRENCH
 capital, 
 as yet acquired neither skill nor experience: they possessed neither
 self-reliance nor the respect of the men who were under them.
 Such was THE—STATE—OF—the wrecks of the old army, 
 but the bulk of the
 forces with which FRANCE began THE—WAR, 
consisted of raw INSURRECTIONary
 levies, 
The Carmagnoles, 
 REVOLUTIONary volunteers were called, 
 fierce leaders of the JACOBINs shouted that THE—COUNTRY was in danger.
"heated and excited by the scenes of
 THE—REVOLUTION, 
Life of
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE—VOLUME—i c, 
viii] 
who were sullied with participation in the most
 sanguinary horrors of PARIS, 
 alike for misconduct before the enemy and for savage insubordination
 against their own officers, 
intoxicated with massacre and
 sedition, 
behind you
 this cavalry, 
ever seen perhaps since ATTILA's
 time."
 Such phalanxed masses of fighters did the Carmagnoles ultimately become; but FRANCE ran a fearful risk in being obliged to rely on them when the
VOLUME—I—CHAPTER—xi]
the right wing of the allied army moved forward, 
 grey of the morning of the 20th of             ;;09;;, 
to gain KELLERMAN's left
 flank and rear, 
 the rest of THE—ARMY, 
which here
 converge semi—circularly round the plateau of Valmy, 
were to assail
 his position in front, 
 unexpected collision between some of the advanced cavalry on each side
 in the low ground, 
 had not been unobservant of THE—DANGER of his comrade, 
thus isolated and
 involved, 
 and he had ordered up troops to support KELLERMAN on either
 flank in THE—EVENT of his being attacked, 
moved
 forward slowly, 
 and KELLERMAN's army, 
ranged on the plateau of Valmy,
 "projected like a cape into the midst of the lines of the Prussian
 bayonets." 
I have drawn much
 of the ensuing description from him] 
A thick autumnal mist floated in
 waves of vapour over the plains and ravines that lay between the two
leaving only the crests and peaks of the hills glittering in the
 —EARLY, light, 
About ten o'clock the fog began to clear off, 
 THE—FRENCH from their promontory saw emerging from the white wreaths
 of mist, 
glittering —IN—THE—sunshine, 
the countless PREUSSEN—cavalry
 which were to envelops them as in a net if once driven from their
the solid columns of the infantry that moved forward as if
 animated by a single will, 
fresh from their
 contests with the Spahis of THE—EAST.
 The best and bravest of THE—FRENCH must have beheld this spectacle with
 secret apprehension and awe, 
it is an anxious and fearful thing to be called
 on to encounter danger among comrades of whose steadiness you can feel
 no certainty, 
Each soldier of KELLERMAN's army must have remembered the
 series of panic routs which had hitherto invariably taken place on the
 French side
 and must have cast restless glances to
to calculate how long it was likely to be before a
 general rush of his comrades to the rear would either harry him off with
to be cut down by
 assailing multitudes.
in which the allied
 forces and the emigrants began to descend from La Lune to the attack of
while the cannonade was opening between the PREUSSEN—and the
 REVOLUTIONary batteries, 
 The old monarchy had little chance of support in the hall of the
             —DURING——THE—SUMMER of 1792, 
 but when the atrocities of THE—PEOPLE began, 
 had organized one so extensive, 
 if 
17920900             -IN, the retreat of THE—DUKE—OF—Brunswick, 
had not damped the ardour of the whole of THE—WEST of FRANCE, 
then ready to break out into INSURRECTION." 
THE—GERMAN—poet says,
[Goethe's Campaign in FRANCE in 1792, 
This was AGAIN occupied by our people;  
 but it presented the wildest aspect, 
The roofs were shot to pieces;  
 the corn-shocks scattered about, 
 stretched upon them here and there;  
could plainly survey the favourable position of THE—FRENCH;  
 they were standing in the form of a semicircle in the greatest quiet and security;  
They wanted to take me back AGAIN with them;  
 but I spoke to them of particular objects I had in view, 
 nothing of their strength or clearness;  
 On the whole, 
I found scarcely one who expressed a really passionate desire to try it."
THE—FRENCH infantry held their ground steadily under the fire of the PREUSSEN—guns,
 and their own artillery replied with equal spirit and greater effect on the denser masses of the
dashed down into the valley, 
drove it back in disorder, 
 KELLERMAN having his horse shot under him, 
being with difficulty carried off by his men, 
 The PREUSSEN—columns now advanced in turn, 
 THE—FRENCH artillerymen began to waver and desert their posts,
 but were rallied by the efforts and example of their officers;  
 SYNOPSIS OP EVENTS BETWEEN
18150000             THE —BATTLE—OF—WATERLOO, 
17930000             Trial and EXECUTION of LOUIS—XVI, 
17930000             ENGLAND and SPAIN declare war against FRANCE, 
17930000             Royalist war in La Vendee, 
17930000             Second —INVASÃON—OF—France by THE—ALLIES.
17940000             Lord Howe's victory over THE—FRENCH fleet, 
17940000             Final partition of Poland by Russia, 
17950000             THE—FRENCH armies under Pichegru, 
17950000             Cessation of THE—WAR in La Vendee.
17960000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE commands THE—FRENCH—ARMY of ITALY and gains repeated victories over the AUSTRIAns.
17970000             VICTORY—OF—Jervis, 
17970000             PEACE—OF—CAMPO—FORMIO between FRANCE and AUSTRIA, 
17970000             DEFEAT—OF—the Dutch off Camperdown by ADMIRAL—Duncan.
17980000             —REBELLION in IRELAND, 
17980000             Expedition of THE—FRENCH under NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE to Egypt, 
17980000             LORD—NELSON destroys THE—FRENCH fleet at —BATTLE—OF—THE—Nile.
17990000             Renewal of THE—WAR—BETWEEN—AUSTRIA and FRANCE, 
17990000             THE—EMPEROR—OF—RUSSIA sends an army IN—AID—OF—AUSTRIA, 
17990000             THE—FRENCH are repeatedly defeated in ITALY, 
17990000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE returns from Egypt and makes himself 1, 
17990000             Massena wins —BATTLE—OF—Zurich, 
17990000             THE—EMPEROR—OF—RUSSIA makes PEACE—WITH—France.
18000000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE passes the Alps and 
18000000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE defeats the AUSTRIAns at MARENGO.
18000000             MOREAU wins —BATTLE—OF—Hohenlinden.
18010000             TREATY—OF—Luneville between FRANCE and AUSTRIA.
18010000             The —BATTLE—OF—Copenhagen.
18020000             PEACE—OF—Amiens.
18030000             WAR—BETWEEN—England and FRANCE renewed.
18040000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE is made EMPEROR—OF—France.
18050000             Great preparations of NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE to invade ENGLAND, 
18050000             AUSTRIA, 
supported by Russia, 
18050000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE marches into GERMANY, 
18050000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE takes Vienna, 
18050000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE gains —BATTLE—OF—Austerlitz, 
18050000             LORD—NELSON destroys the combined French and Spanish fleets, 
18050000             LORD—NELSON is killed at the —BATTLE—OF—Trafalgar.
18060000             WAR—BETWEEN—Prussia and FRANCE, 
18060000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE conquers Prussia in the —BATTLE—OF—Jena.
18070000             Obstinate warfare between THE—FRENCH and Russian armies in East Prussia and Poland, 
18070000             PEACE—OF—Tilsit.
18080000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE endeavours to make his brother —KING—OF—Spain, 
18080000             Rising of the Spanish nation against NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
18080000             ENGLAND sends troops to aid THE—SPANIARDS, 
18080000             —BATTLE—OF—Vimiera and 
18080000             —BATTLE—OF—CORUNNA.
18090000             War renewed between FRANCE and AUSTRIA, 
18090000             —BATTLE—OF—Asperne and
18090000             —BATTLE—OF—Wagram.
18090000             Peace granted to AUSTRIA, 
18090000             LORD—WELLINGTON's VICTORY—OF—TALAVERA, 
in SPAIN.
18100000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE oo the Arch-duchess MARIA—LOUISA, 
18100000             HOLLAND annexed to FRANCE.
18120000             WAR—BETWEEN—ENGLAND and THE—UNITED—STATES, 
18120000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE invades Russia, 
18120000             —BATTLE—OF—Borodino, 
18120000             THE—FRENCH occupy Moscow, 
18120000             Moscow is burned.
18120000             Disastrous retreat of the great army of FRANCE 
18120000             almost total destruction of the great army of FRANCE.
18130000             Prussia takes up arms AGAIN against FRANCE, 
18130000             AUSTRIA takes up arms AGAIN against FRANCE, 
18130000             —BATTLE—OF—LÜTZEN, 
18130000             —BATTLE—OF—Bautzen, 
18130000             —BATTLE—OF—DRESDEN, 
18130000             —BATTLE—OF—Culm, 
18130000             —BATTLE—OF—Leipsic, 
18130000             THE—FRENCH are driven out of GERMANY, 
18130000             LORD—WELLINGTON gains the great —BATTLE—OF—Vittoria, 
18130000             the great —BATTLE—OF—Vittoria completes the rescue of SPAIN from FRANCE.
18140000             THE—ALLIES invade FRANCE on THE—EASTern frontier, 
18140000             LORD—WELLINGTON invades FRANCE on the southern frontier, 
18140000             —BATTLE—OF—Laon, 
18140000             —BATTLE—OF—MONTMIRAIL,
18140000             —BATTLE—OF—Arcis-sur-Aube, 
18140000             other Battles in the north-east of FRANCE;
18140000             —BATTLE—OF—TOULOUSE —IN—THE—south of FRANCE, 
18140000             PARIS surrenders to THE—ALLIES, 
18140000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE abdicates.
18140000             1, 
18140000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE goes to THE—ISLE—OF—Elba,
18140000             THE—ISLE—OF—Elba is assigned to NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE by THE—ALLIES, 
18140000             TREATY—OF—GHENT, 
between THE—UNITED—STATES and ENGLAND.
18150000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE suddenly escapes from Elba, 
18150000             NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE lands in FRANCE, 
18150000             THE—FRENCH soldiery join NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE and
18150000             LOUIS—XVIII, 
is obliged to fly from the throne.
--
vol.
 i.CHAPTER—III, 
 remained in PARIS until the 8th of June, 
on the right bank of the river Sambre.
 On the 14th NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE arrived among his troops, 
 who were exulting at the display of their commander's skill in the celerity and precision with which they had been drawn together, 
 in the consciousness of their collective strength.
 The enthusiasm of THE—FRENCH soldiers at seeing their Emperor among
was still more excited by the "ORDER—OF—THE—day," in which he thus
 appealed to them:
 "NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE, 
by the Grace of God, 
THE—CONSTITUTION of THE—EMPIRE,
 EMPEROR—OF—THE—FRENCH, 
to the Grand Army.
 "AT THE—IMPERIAL—HEAD—QUARTERS, 
AVESNES, 
JUNE 14th, 
 THIS—DAY is THE—ANNIVERSARY—OF—MARENGO and of
 FRIEDLAND, 
which twice decided the destiny of Europe, 
as after
 Austerlitz, 
We believed in
 the protestations and in the oaths of princes, 
whom we left on their
 thrones, 
leagued together, 
they aim at the independence
 and the most sacred rights of FRANCE, 
They have commenced the most
 unjust of aggressions, 
Let us, 
march to meet them, 
Are they and we
 no longer the same men?
 "NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE."
If NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE could,
 either by manoeuvring or fighting, 
have succeeded in occupying that
 city, 
the greater part of BELGIUM would unquestionably have declared in
 his favour, 
 and the results of such a success, 
gained by THE—EMPEROR at
 the commencement of THE—CAMPAIGN, 
might have decisively influenced
 the whole after-current of events, 
A glance at the map will show the
 numerous roads that lead from the different fortresses on THE—FRENCH
 north-eastern frontier, 
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE might have chosen for the advance of a strong force upon that
so as to enable him to
 concentrate troops on any one of these roads sufficiently in advance of
 Brussels to check an assailing enemy, 
THE—ARMY was kept thus available
 for movement in any necessary direction, 
till certain intelligence
 arrived on the 15th of June that THE—FRENCH had crossed the frontier in
 large force near Thuin, 
that they had driven back the PREUSSEN—advanced
 troops under GENERAL Ziethen, 
were also moving across the Sambre
 upon Charleroi.
calling them in
 from the left upon Ligny, 
which is to the north-east of Charleroi.
 WELLINGTON also drew his troops together, 
calling them in from the
But even now, 
though it was certain that THE—FRENCH were in large
See also the 178th number of the QUARTERLY, 
 ball was to be given by THE—DUCHESS—OF—Richmond at Brussels that night,
 and THE—DUKE proposed to GENERAL Muffling that they should go to the
 ball for a few hours, 
ride forward in the morning to overtake the
 troops at 4 Bras.
must
 have been a fearfully exciting surprise, 
the magnificent stanzas of
 Byron are as true as they are beautiful, 
 but THE—DUKE and his principal
 officers knew well the stern termination to that festive scene which
 was approaching, 
in such a way as to attract as little
 observation as possible, 
the leaders of the various corps left the
 ball-room, 
took their stations at the HEAD—OF—their men, 
 pressing forward through the last hours of the short summer night to the
 arena of anticipated slaughter.
 And BELGIUM's capital had gather'd then
 Her Beauty and her chivalry, 
bright
 The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men; A thousand hearts beat happily, 
 Music arose with its voluptuous swell,
 And all went merry as a marriage bell; But hush!  
 hark!  
He gave the command of this
 left wing to Marshal Ney, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE seems not to have originally intended
 to employ this celebrated GENERAL IN—THE—CAMPAIGN, 
It was only on the
 night of the 11th of June, 
that Marshal Ney received at PARIS an order
 to join THE—ARMY, 
Hurrying forward to the Belgian frontier, 
he met the
 Emperor near Charleroi, 
through
 Gosselies, 
Frasne, 
Quatre Bras, 
Genappe, 
Waterloo, 
 proceeded to the post assigned him, 
 and before ten on the night of the
the exhausted state of
 THE—FRENCH troops, 
who had been marching and fighting since ten in the
the advantages which the
 French gained by their almost superhuman energy and activity —THROUGHOUT
 the long day of the 15th of June, 
were necessarily bought at the price
 of more delay and inertness
             —DURING—the following night and morrow, 
 would have been observable if they had not been thus overtasked, 
Ney has
 been blamed for want of promptness in his attack upon 4 Bras, 
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE has been criticised for not having fought at Ligny before the
 afternoon of the 16th: but their censors should remember that soldiers
 are but men, 
 and that there must be necessarily some interval of time,
 before troops, 
that have been worn and weakened by twenty hours of
 incessant fatigue and strife, 
 Having on the night of the 15th placed the most advanced of THE—FRENCH
 under his command in position in front of Frasne, 
Ney rode back to
 Charleroi, 
where NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE also arrived about midnight, 
having returned
 from directing THE—OPERATIONs of the centre and right column of the
THE—EMPEROR and the Marshal supped together, 
remained in
 earnest conversation till two in the morning, 
An hour or two afterwards
 Ney rode back to Frasne, 
where he endeavoured to collect tidings of
 the numbers and movements of the enemy in front of him, 
 and also busied
 himself in the necessary duty of learning the amount and composition
 of the troops which he himself was commanding, 
He had been so suddenly
 appointed to his high station, 
that he did not know the strength of
 the several regiments under him, 
or even the names of their commanding
He now caused his aides-de-camp to prepare the requisite
 returns, 
drew together the troops, 
whom he was thus learning before
 he used them.
 WELLINGTON remained at THE—DUCHESS—OF—Richmond's ball at Brussels till
 about 3 o'clock in the morning of the 16th, 
"showing himself very
 cheerful" as Baron Muffling, 
who accompanied him, 
observes, 
[Muffling,
233] 
At 5 o'clock THE—DUKE and the Baron were on horseback, 
 reached the position at 4 Bras about eleven, 
As THE—FRENCH 
 were in front of Frasne, 
were perfectly quiet, 
THE—DUKE was informed
 that a very large force under NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE in person was menacing Blucher,
 it was thought possible that only a slight detachment of THE—FRENCH
 was posted at Frasne in order to mask THE—ENGLISH army, 
In that event
 WELLINGTON, 
as he told Baron Muffling, 
 strength in supporting THE—PRUSSIANS: and he proposed to ride across
 from 4 Bras to Blucher's position, 
of the 8th regiment of cuirassiers,
if not attacked by NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE 
THE—REASONs why he failed on the 18th to arrest the
[See Plato,
 Phaedon, 
60, 
 "Never, 
had two such generals as THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON and the
 EMPEROR—NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE encountered since THE—DAY when SCIPIO and HANNIBAL met
 at Zama." 
 The two great champions, 
who now confronted each other, 
were equals in
each had entered THE—MILITARY profession at the same early
The more conspicuous stage, 
on which THE—FRENCH general's youthful
 genius was displayed, 
his heritage of the whole MILITARY—POWER of the
 French Republic, 
the position on which —FOR—YEARS he was elevated as
 sovereign HEAD—OF—an empire surpassing that of Charlemagne, 
 dazzling results of his victories, 
which made and unmade kings, 
 given him a formidable pre-eminence in the eyes of mankind, 
Military men
 spoke with justly rapturous admiration of the brilliancy of his 1.
 Italian campaigns, 
when he broke through the pedantry of traditional
with a small but promptly-wielded force, 
shattered army
 after army of the AUSTRIAns, 
conquered provinces and capitals, 
dictated
 treaties, 
annihilated or created states, 
The iniquity of his
 Egyptian expedition was too often forgotten in contemplating the
 skill and boldness with which he destroyed the Mameluke cavalry at the
 Pyramids, 
None could forget the
 marvellous —PASSAGE of the Alps in 1800, 
or THE—VICTORY—OF—MARENGO,
 which wrested ITALY back from AUSTRIA, 
destroyed the fruit of
 twenty victories, 
which the enemies of FRANCE had gained over her in the
 absence of her favourite chief, 
Even higher seemed the glories of
 his German campaigns, 
the triumphs of Ulm, 
of Austerlitz, 
of JENA, 
NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE's disasters in Russia, 
18120000             
were imputed by
 his admirers to the elements, 
 his reverses in GERMANY, 
18130000             
 attributed by them to treachery: and even those two calamitous years had
 held high command in India, 
 and had displayed eminent skill in planning
 and combining movements, 
unrivalled celerity and boldness in
 EXECUTION, 
On his return to Europe SEVERAL YEARS passed away before any
 fitting opportunity was accorded for the exercise of his genius, 
 this important respect, 
as a
 sovereign, 
At length his appointment
 to the command —IN—THE—spanish PENINSULA gave him the means of showing
 Europe that ENGLAND had a general who could revive the glories of Crecy,
of Agincourt, 
of Blenheim, 
of Ramilies, 
At the head of
 forces always numerically far inferior to the armies with which
 NAPOLÉON—BONAPARTE deluged the PENINSULA, 
--thwarted by jealous and incompetent
--ill-supported by friends, 
assailed by factious enemies at
 home, 
 WELLINGTON maintained THE—WAR FOR SEVERAL YEARS, 
unstained by any
 serious reverse, 
marked by victory in thirteen pitched battles,
 at Vimiera, 
the Douro, 
TALAVERA, 
Busaco, 
Fuentes d'Onore, 
Salamanca,
 Vittoria, 
THE—PYRENEES, 
the Bidassoa, 
the Nive, 
the Nivelle, 
Orthes, 
 TOULOUSE, 
JUNOT, 
 whose names were the TERROR—s of continental Europe--had been baffled
 by his skill, 
[I have heard the remark made that GROUCHY twice had in his hands the power of changing the destinies of Europe, 
twice wanted nerve to act: 
17960000             —IN, when GROUCHY flinched from landing THE—FRENCH—ARMY at Bantry Bay
17960000             —IN, (GROUCHY was second in command to HOCHE, 
HOCHE, whose ship was blown back by a storm), 
2., 
when GROUCHY failed to lead his whole force from Wavre to the scene of decisive KONFLIKT at Waterloo, 
such were the arrangements of the PREUSSEN—GENERAL, 
that even if GROUCHY had marched upon Waterloo, 
GROUCHY would have been held in check by the nearest Prussian corps, 
certainly GROUCHY would have been held in check by the two nearest Prussian corps, 
the rest  Prussian corps proceeded to join WELLINGTON, 
This, however, 
would have diminished the number of Prussian corps who appeared at Waterloo, 
 would have kept the Prussian corps back to a later hour.
--SEE Siborne, VOLUME—i—PAGE—323, and 
--SEE Gleig—PAGE—142.
 the QUARTERLY in an article on the "Life of Blucher," usually attributed to Sir FRANCIS Head, The PREUSSEN—writer, 
GENERAL Clausewitz, is there cited as "expressing a positive opinion, 
in which every MILITARY critic but a Frenchman must concur, 
or even from the glowing stanzas of the poet.
charge was
 magnificent, 
our general replied, 
when he personally directed the fire of the battery which, 
 on Several of THE—FRENCH superior officers were at its head, 
 the setting sun broke through the clouds which had obscured the sky
 round him;  
 answer;  
let them fire away;  
 and more rapidly forwards on their right;  
 was now entirely gone;  
Their words
 were,--'Here is all that is left of my corps, 
 my brigade, 
rather than rob him of
 knowing nothing of the rest of political and MILITARY events that were taking place."
 No returns ever were made of the amount of THE—FRENCH loss in the —BATTLE—OF—Waterloo;  
may be partially judged of by the amount of killed and wounded in the armies of the conquerors.
 On this subject both the PREUSSEN—and British official evidence is unquestionably full and authentic, 
 Of THE—ARMY that fought under THE—DUKE—OF—WELLINGTON nearly 15,000—MEN were killed and wounded on this single day of battle.
 Seven thousan Prussians also fell at Waterloo, 
 At such a fearful price was the deliverance of Europe purchased.
betrayed no sign of emotion at the most ghastly casualties;  
the sight of the carnage with which the field was covered, 
 spectacle of the agonies of the wounded men who lay moaning in their misery by thousands and tens of thousands, 
On reaching his HEAD—QUARTERs IN—THE—VILLAGE—OF—Waterloo, 
 anxiously after the numerous friends who had been round him in the morning, 
Many he was told were dead;  
 others were lying alive, 
IN—THE—HOUSEs round him, 
 It is in our hero's own words alone that his feelings can be adequately told, 
he thus expressed himself:-
 -"My heart is broken by the terrible loss I have sustained in my old friends and companions,
can be half so melancholy as a battle won;  
 the bravery of my troops has hitherto saved me from the greater evil;  
 but to win such a battle as this of Waterloo, 
 It is not often that a successful GENERAL in modern warfare is called on, 
to award
 a prize of superior valour to one of his soldiers, 
 Such was to some extent the case with respect to —BATTLE—OF—Waterloo, 
18180800             In the  of , 
an English clergyman offered to confer a small annuity on some Waterloo soldier, 
to be named by THE—DUKE, 
VOLUME—I—PAGE—391]
 THE—DUKE requested Sir John Byng to choose a man from the 2d Brigade of Guards, 
which had so highly distinguished itself in the defence of Hougoumont, 
 There were many gallant candidates, 
but the —ELECTION fell on Sergeant James Graham, 
of the light company of the Coldstreams, 
 This brave man had signalised himself, 
throughout THE—DAY, 
in the defence of that important post, 
especially in the critical struggle that
 took place at the period when THE—FRENCH 
who had gained the wood, 
the orchard, 
detached garden, 
succeeded in bursting open a gate of
 THE—COURTyard of the chateau itself, 
rushed in in large masses,
 confident of carrying all before them, 
A hand-to-hand fight, 
of the most desperate character, 
was kept up between them and the Guards for a few minutes, 
 but at last THE—BRITISH bayonets prevailed, 
Nearly all the
 Frenchmen who had forced their way in were killed on the spot, 
effectually BARRICADEd it against further
 assaults, 
 English garrison now kept up a deadly fire of musketry, 
 fiercely answered by THE—FRENCH 
who swarmed round the curtilage like
 ravening wolves, 
The 12th, 
he feared I was badly
expressed a wish to be removed to the
He said it was against their orders to remove even their own men; but that if they gained THE—DAY (and he understood that THE—DUKE of
were over;  
 and the groans of the wounded all around me, 
became every moment more and more audible.
 I thought the night would never end.
 "Much about this time I found a soldier of the Royals lying across my legs: he had probably crawled thither in his agony;  
his convulsive motions, 
the air issuing through a wound in his side, 
distressed me greatly;  
as I had a wound of the same nature myself, 
 Prussians were wandering about to plunder;  
 the scene in FERDINAND Count Fathom came into my mind, 
had been plundered ALREADY;  
pulled me about roughly.
had missed his regiment;  
 he released me from the dying soldier, 
stood over me, 
 "Day broke;  and 
 AT SIX O'CLOCK IN THE MORNING some English were seen at
I had received seven wounds;  
I was saved by excessive bleeding."
to wrench it off with the other;  
"Ca n'est rien, 
camarades;  
Gloire a LA—FRANCE!" The same officer, 
 The colonel called to him to join his comrades and retreat;  
 but the grenadier showed him his musket and his hands;  
"These hands have with this musket used to-day more than twenty packets of
"Tout est perdu! pauvre FRANCE!" The gallantry of THE—FRENCH
 —THROUGHOUT THE—DAY he was in the front of the battle;  
 and was one of the very last Frenchmen who quitted the field, 
 him in the last attack made on THE—ENGLISH position;  
 but he was seen on foot, 
 and in an instant the PREUSSEN—horseman were on them, 
 a brisk fire of musketry;  
as also by the general obscurity which now prevailed;  
 and thus saved alike the eagle and the honour of THE—REGIMEnt."
 On the contrary,
 "The intrepid advance and fight at Assaye, 
18090000             the movement on TALAVERA -IN , 
18120000             the advance to MADRID and BURGOS in , 
18130000             ,the actions before Bayonne in  and 
the desperate stand made at Waterloo itself,
 when more tamely-prudent generals would have retreated beyond Brussels, 
[See the admirable parallel of WELLINGTON and Marlborough at the end of Sir Archibald Alison's "Life of THE—DUKE—OF—Marlborough."
 Sir Archibald justly considers WELLINGTON the more daring general of the two]
 15TH OF.;;07;;the ex-emperor surrendered himself on board of THE—ENGLISH
 were speedily captured;  and 
 BY THE 29TH OF JUNE the invaders were taking their positions in front of PARIS, 
 The Provisional Government, 
which acted IN—THE—FRENCH capital after THE—EMPEROR's abdication, 
 The Provisional Government opened negotiations with the allied chiefs, 
 BLÜCHER, 
in his quenchless hatred of THE—FRENCH 
 BLÜCHER was eager to reject all proposals for a suspension of hostilities, 
 to assault and storm THE—CITY, 
 the sager and calmer spirit of WELLINGTON prevailed over his colleague BLÜCHER;  
 the entreated armistice was granted;  and 
 ON THE 3D OF.;;07;;the capitulation of PARIS terminated THE—WAR—OF—THE—BATTLE—OF—WATERLOO.
 In closing our observations on this 
 the last of the Decisive Battles of THE—WORLD, 
 it is pleasing to contrast  
18510600             —THE —YEAR that is NOW 
[Written In ;;06;;] 
passing over our heads.
We have not (and long may we be without) the stern excitement of martialstrife, 
 we see no captive —STANDARDS of our European neighbours brought in triumph to our shrines, 
 we behold an infinitely prouder spectacle, 
 We see the banners of every civilized nation waving over the arena of our competition with each other, 
 in the arts that minister to our race's support and happiness, 
 not to its suffering and
 "Peace hath her victories No less renowned than War;"
 End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fifteen Decisive Battles of The
 World From MARATHON to Waterloo, 
 *** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES ***
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